February 2, 2026 • 39 mins
"Fumifugium" was a treatise on air pollution written in 1661. In addition to warning about the dangers of coal smoke, John Evelyn wrote this work to improve the reputation of King Charles II.
Research:
- Chambers, Douglas D. C. "Evelyn, John (1620–1706), diarist and writer." Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. January 03, 2008. Oxford University Press. Date of access 13 Jan. 2026, https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-8996
- "Evelyn, John (1620-1706)." Encyclopedia of World Biography, Gale, 1998. Gale Academic OneFile, link.gale.com/apps/doc/A148426050/GPS?u=mlin_n_melpub&sid=bookmark-GPS&xid=ab356add. Accessed 13 Jan. 2026.
- Borunda, Alejandra. “The EPA is changing how it considers the costs and benefits of air pollution rules.” NPR. 1/13/2026. https://www.npr.org/2026/01/13/nx-s1-5675307/epa-air-regulations-health-benefits
- DeWispelare, Daniel. “’Heavy Fumes of Charcoal Creep into the Brain.’” The 18th-century Common. 5/14/2018. https://www.18thcenturycommon.org/evelyn/
- Hovde, Sarah. “A solution for pollution?” Folger Shakespeare Library. 4/21/2017. https://www.folger.edu/blogs/shakespeare-and-beyond/air-pollution-london-fumifugium/
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. “Pamphlet Collection: Fumifugium, by John Evelyn.” Library, Archive & Open Research Services Blog. 7/11/2022. https://blogs.lshtm.ac.uk/library/2022/11/07/pamphlet-collection-fumifugium-by-john-evelyn/
- Jenner, Mark. (1995) The politics of London air : John Evelyn's 'Fumifugium' and the Restoration. The Historical Journal. pp. 535-551. ISSN: 1469-5103. https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/id/eprint/1550/1/jennerm1.pdf
- Heidorn, K.C. “A Chronology of Important Events in the History of Air Pollution Meteorology to 1970.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, December 1978, Vol. 59, No. 12 (December 1978). Via JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26219252
- Foster, John Bellamy. “Introduction to John Evelyn’s ‘Fumifugium.’” Organization & Environment, June 1999, Vol. 12, No. 2 (June 1999). https://www.jstor.org/stable/26161864
- Brimblecombe, Peter. “Interest in Air Pollution among Early Fellows of the Royal Society.” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Mar., 1978, Vol. 32, No. 2 (Mar., 1978). Via JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/531723
- Cavert, William M. “The Environmental Policy of Charles I: Coal Smoke and the English Monarchy, 1624–40.” Journal of British Studies, APRIL 2014, Vol. 53, No. 2 (APRIL 2014). Via JSTOR. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24701865
- Darley, Gillian. “John Evelyn: Britain's First Environmentalist.” Gresham College. 11/12/2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOik751LhHk
- Surrey Heritage. “John Evelyn (1620 – 1706).” https://www.exploringsurreyspast.org.uk/themes/people/writers/john_evelyn/
- Evelyn, John. “Fumifugium.” 1661. https://archive.org/details/fumifugium00eveluoft/
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Episode Transcript
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Speaker 1 (00:01):
Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production
of iHeartRadio.
Speaker 2 (00:11):
Hello, and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy V. Wilson
and I'm Holly Frye. While I was working on our
episode on Ricketts, I stumbled across a reference to a
work I had never heard of before, by someone I
do know about, but in a different context, and that
was Fumafujim. We're just that's how we're gonna say it, Fumafujim,
(00:35):
who knows how he wanted it to be pronounced. That
was written by John Evelyn in sixteen sixty one. And
I knew of John Evelin mostly as a diarist. He
comes up a lot alongside his contemporary and fellow diarist,
Samuel Peeps. We've covered Samuel Peeps on the show before.
Fumafujim was a treatise on air pollution, and it was
(00:57):
mentioned in the Ricketts research because of the possible role
of air pollution in an apparent rise in rickets in
the seventeenth century. In that moment, I kind of thought, wow,
John Evelyn wrote a treatise on air pollution. I've had
no idea fascinating, And then I just mentally moved on
got back to my work. But the day that I
(01:17):
finished the Rickets outline, news broke that in the US,
the Environmental Protection Agency is going to stop factoring the
economic cost of harm to human health into decisions about
air pollution regulations. A spokesperson from the agency said that
they are still considering health impacts, but that there won't
(01:39):
be a monetary estimate because those numbers are too uncertain. Okay,
but like, you can't really include the impact on human
health and a cost benefit analysis if you're not estimating
the cost. Also, this administration has been pretty straightforwardly hostile
to things like conservation and green energy. So when I
(02:05):
heard that, I immediately went back to fumafujium and the fact
that people have been talking about the harms of air
pollution for hundreds of years.
Speaker 1 (02:13):
So we're going to start this episode by looking at
John Eveland's biography. He was born in Surrey on October
thirty first, sixteen twenty, the fourth surviving child born to
Richard and Eleanor Comer Eveland. The Eveland family held the
patent on the manufacture of gunpowder, which traced back to
John's great grandfather, who had brought the manufacture of gunpowder
(02:35):
to England. The family lived at Wooden House, which was
on a seven hundred acre estate. This is a hotel,
conference center, and wedding venue today to give you a
sense of the scale. Richard had an income of about
four thousand pounds a year. In other words, this was
a wealthy family, although since he was the second son,
(02:57):
John was not expected to inherit much of this. When
he was about five, John was sent to be raised
by his maternal grandparents. From a very young age, he
liked to draw and to sketch, and he started keeping
a diary at the age of eleven. He may have
started this diary by writing his notes in an almanac.
He reformatted his entries later on, and at first he
(03:20):
included both personal reflections and historic and newsworthy events, but
eventually his diary would focus almost entirely on the latter.
Speaker 2 (03:30):
John's sister, Elizabeth, died in sixteen thirty four at the
age of about twenty, and then his mother died a
year later. Of what he described as excessive remorse over
the deaths of Elizabeth and of other siblings who had
died when they were babies. John was only fifteen when
his mother died. In sixteen thirty seven, John and two
(03:51):
brothers went to the Middle Temple, one of the four
inns of Court of England and Wales, where people went
to study law and be called to the bar. This
was really more.
Speaker 1 (04:01):
About social connections than law study, though.
Speaker 2 (04:05):
That same year he was admitted to Balliol College, Oxford.
He left this college without finishing a degree, that was
not uncommon for men of his station in the seventeenth century.
He also didn't feel like he was prepared for college, though,
both because he did not think his earlier education at
a free school had been very good and because he
(04:26):
had not really applied himself to it. In sixteen forty,
when John was twenty, his father died, and at that
point his older brother inherited Wooton House. The following year,
Eveland traveled to the continent, touring Holland and Belgium and
very briefly volunteering for military service before returning to England.
(04:47):
After years of conflict between King Charles the First and parliament,
a civil war started in sixteen forty two, with Royalists
fighting against Parliamentarians, and this put Evil in a difficult position.
He was unquestionably a Royalist, but Wooden House was in
territory controlled by the Parliamentarians. Evelin decided to return to
(05:10):
the continent rather than becoming involved in the war on
the Royalist side that would have risked the confiscation of
the family estate by the Parliamentarians.
Speaker 1 (05:21):
Evelin spent about four years on a grand tour of
France and Italy, traveling and learning about art and architecture.
Then in sixteen forty seven he married Mary Brown, whose
father was Charles the First's ambassador to Paris. Although Mary
was English, she had spent almost all of her life
in France. Her exact birth year is unclear, but she
(05:42):
was still in her early to mid teens and Evelyn
was twenty six. They do not seem to have lived
together until about three years after the wedding, though she
is described as Evelyn's intellectual equal and as being very
kind and sweet. She also put a lot more effort
and care into the education of their children than John
(06:03):
had experienced himself. King Charles the First was executed in
sixteen forty nine, and his son, Charles the Second fled
to France in sixteen fifty one. That effectively ended the
Civil War. Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth
of England, Scotland and Ireland. John Eveland's loyalties were not
(06:25):
changed at this point, and his wife's family were also Royalists,
but now that the war was over, he thought it
was time to return to England. He and Mary traveled separately,
and both of them arrived in sixteen fifty two. Eveland
never left England after this. John and Mary lived at
Sayes Court, Deptford, which had been occupied by Mary's family
(06:47):
for generations, although since it had been confiscated by the Parliamentarians,
Eveland had to do a lot of work to secure
the lease to it. The first of their eight children
was born in sixteen fifty two, although only four of
those children lived to adulthood and only one of them
outlived John and Mary.
Speaker 2 (07:07):
The sixteen fifties were difficult for evelin he was a
Royalist and publishing Royalist tracts, and England no longer had
a monarch. The loss of three of his children over
the course of just a few years was also devastating
for the whole family. Also, while John and Mary both
had affluent upbringings, their life together was on a much
(07:29):
smaller budget. Since John was the second son and had
not inherited most of the family's wealth, they were not
poor by any means.
Speaker 1 (07:38):
This was more like they had to be really.
Speaker 2 (07:40):
Selective about which luxuries they could afford.
Speaker 1 (07:45):
Eveland put some of his efforts into starting a garden
at Says Court, one that he aspired to turn into
a paradise on earth. This sparked a greater interest in
botany and garden design, and he would eventually go on
to design gardens for his friends. He also did a
lot of writing, including scientific writing. He translated the first
(08:06):
book of Lucretius's didactic poem De rerum Natura into English
verse with a commentary in sixteen fifty six. This book,
which is composed as a hymn, lays out the basics
of the universe as composed of atoms. Evelin was connected
to a lot of the people who had established the
Royal Society, and he became a member of that society
(08:28):
once it was established in sixteen sixty one. That's also
the year he wrote Fumafujium, which we'll be talking more
about in a bit. Evelan wrote about thirty books over
the course of his life, and several of them were
focused on conservation and the natural world. Sometimes he's described
as England's first environmentalist. Silva or a Discourse of forest,
(08:51):
trees and the Propagation of timber in His Majesty's Dominions,
was published in sixteen sixty four and it's one of
the earliest published works on tree, CON's and forestry. Soil,
A philosophical discourse of Earth relating to the culture and
improvement of it for vegetation and the propagation of plants,
came out in sixteen seventy six. Later editions of that
(09:14):
book use the title Terra rather than Soil. Other works
over the course of Evelin's life included a book on
etching and engraving called Sculptura, a book on metals called
Numis Mata, and Aceteria, a discourse on salads that is,
of course about salads. He also wrote a biography of
(09:36):
Margaret Godolphin, who was a maid of honor at court because,
of course, after the monarchy had been re established. Evelin's
relationship with her has been framed as paternal and mentoring,
but also as kind of an emotionally very intense friendship
bordering on an affair, possibly manipulative on Evelin's part. Margaret
(09:57):
secretly married Sydney Godolphin in sixteen seve twenty six and
died in childbirth two years later, and it's after that
that Evelyn wrote this biography. Although Eveland did not really
care for court or public life after the restoration of
Charles the Second in sixteen sixty he did serve on
a series of commissions and councils which continued during the
(10:18):
reign of James the Seventh and Second. These included the
Commission to rebuild London after the Great Fire of sixteen
sixty six, and the Council of Foreign Plantations, which governed
England's slave plantations in the colonies. King James also named
Eveland one of the Commissioners of the Privy Seal. Evelyn
(10:38):
also served on the Commission for Sick and Wounded Mariners
and Prisoners of War during the Dutch Wars of the
sixteen sixties and seventies. This is probably when he became
friends with Samuel Peeps. Samuel PEAPs was working with the
Navy at that point. In our episode about Samuel Peeps,
which will run as a Saturday Classic soon, we said
(10:59):
that Peeps just found everything in the world around him
really interesting and worth knowing about, and this was really
true of Evelin as well. In sixteen ninety one, Evelyn
inherited Wooden House after the death of his older brother's
last surviving son. He moved there with his wife in
sixteen ninety four. Evelan died in London on February third,
(11:22):
seventeen oh six, at the age of eighty five. Most
of Evelyn's works were published posthumously, including his diary, which
was published for the first time in eighteen eighteen. He
also left behind a ton of correspondents in addition to
his more formal books and writings. An archive of his
personal papers is in the British Library today, although much
(11:45):
of his personal library, which numbered more than three thousand volumes,
was broken up and sold at auction in the nineteen seventies.
Let's take a quick sponsor break and then we will
talk about fumafujium.
Speaker 2 (12:07):
To set the stage for our discussion of John Evelyn's fumafujium,
we need to talk about coal. Historically, people in Britain
have burned a range of materials for heat and fuel,
including peat, dried dung wood, and charcoal, which is made
with wood and other organic materials. In London in particular,
the main sources of fuel for centuries were wood and charcoal,
(12:30):
which most people just called coal. Generally speaking, people did
not find wood smoke to be all that unpleasant, and
charcoal didn't produce a lot of smoke when it burned.
The Romans mined and used bituminous coal in Britain, but
after the end of the Roman Empire most coal mining
there stopped. Then around the twelfth century people started extracting
(12:53):
coal from along the River Tyne in Newcastle and from
cliffs around the coast of Northumberland and South Wales. It's
possible that this coastal location is the source of the
term sea coal, although there's also speculation that it's a
reference to coal that was washed ashore or exposed by erosion,
or that the name came from the coal being transported
(13:14):
by sea. Whatever it may be, the term sea coal
differentiated bituminous coal from charcoal. Generally speaking, coal produces more
heavier smoke than wood or charcoal, and the coal that
was being burned at this time also probably contained a
lot more sulfur than what's in use today. That made
(13:35):
its smoke even more unpleasant. Even so, some industries started
adopting coal as a fuel source in the thirteenth century,
especially brewers and metalsmiths, and some people also started using
coal to heat their homes. One reason for this was
that centuries of wood and charcoal use as fuel had
(13:56):
led to deforestation, so wood was becoming harder to get
and more expensive. Blacksmiths also used bellows to make their
fires hotter, and coal did not spark as much as
other fuels did when they did this.
Speaker 1 (14:12):
Since the smoke from wood and charcoal had not been
perceived as all that noxious, people hadn't built many tall
chimneys to try to carry it farther away from the
ground before it was released into the air. That compounded
air quality problems. When people started burning more.
Speaker 2 (14:28):
Coal, there's still a lot more coal smoke a lot
closer to the ground than there would have been had
it been sent up a chimney.
Speaker 1 (14:36):
First.
Speaker 2 (14:38):
In the thirteenth century, Parliament started making various efforts to
regulate the industrial use of coal, especially from breweries. Edward
the first prohibited the burning of sea coal in thirteen
oh six. People kept burning coal in spite of that,
band though, the burning of coal in Britain declined over
(14:59):
the latter half of the fourteenth century, but that wasn't
because of objections to the smoke. It was because so
many people died during the Black Death. The dramatic drop
in population and corresponding drop in demand for fuel also
meant that over the next decades Britain's forests started to regrow.
But then during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a combination
(15:21):
of factors led to more widespread coal use. Another was
another wave of deforestation as Britain's population and fuel use
started growing again. Another is the little ice age and
the need to burn more fuel to stay warm because
it was colder and wetter. And a third is that
a lot of England's roads connecting the forests to city
(15:44):
like London, were in really terrible condition, and that was
only getting worse over time. Moving wood into the cities
was increasingly difficult and expensive.
Speaker 1 (15:56):
England's towns and cities, especially London, became aggressively dirtier and
more polluted, leading Parliament and a series of monarchs to
once again attempt to regulate the burning of coal. For
the most part, this was not about the idea of
public health or coal smoke being bad for people in general.
It was about the health of the monarch and their
(16:17):
family and what the monarch found unpleasant or distasteful. For example,
under Queen Elizabeth the First in fifteen seventy eight, the
burning of coal was banned in London, but only when
Parliament was in session.
Speaker 2 (16:32):
Then, in sixteen oh three, James the sixth of Scotland
was crowned as James the First of England and Ireland.
Coal was more widely used in Scotland, and its acceptance
by the crown and use in the royal household helped
pave the way for its use elsewhere in England. More
industries started using coal as fuel. At the same time,
(16:55):
brewers in particular were still seen as polluting the air
with all of their coals, and there were ongoing efforts
to either regulate brewers use of coal or to move
the breweries out of London in the first part of
the seventeenth century.
Speaker 1 (17:11):
Soon London was burning more coal than probably any other
city in Europe, and that brings us to John Eveland's Fumafujium,
written in sixteen sixty one. Eveland started on this very
shortly after the restoration of Charles the Second in sixteen sixty.
As we've already said, Eveland didn't really like court or
(17:31):
public life. He much preferred to work in his garden
and read and write about things that interested him. I
feel you, Eveland. But he also had high hopes for
what life would be like now that England had a
king again. Eveland thought he might be able to encourage
the king to pursue things that would improve England as
a nation. Evelan also hoped this would help him secure
(17:56):
some kind of royal appointment, one that would let him
do good work and be paid for it. And he
hoped to find a place at court for his wife.
It's a little unclear how much Mary may have wanted
this for herself, but she had grown up in France
in much more affluent circumstances than what she had in England.
She definitely did have friends among the English nobility and
(18:18):
the elite. Fumafujium which the King commissioned was connected to
all of this. Eveland hoped to both impress the King
and encourage him to do something about the problem of
coal smoke in London. And he thought that if the
King put these recommendations into action. The results would reflect
well on the monarch and elevate him in the eyes
(18:40):
of his subjects. The issue of air pollution was also
a natural fit for this, given Charles the Second's focus
on beauty and decorum at his court.
Speaker 2 (18:50):
An article by Mark Jenner of the University of Yorick
argues that Fumafujium was also written partly as a political allegory.
On one level, it was definitely about the issue of
air pollution and coal smoke. Like John Evelyn thought, it
was a way to maybe help the problem get taken
care of, while also making the king look really good
(19:12):
by taking care of that problem. But Evelin might also
have meant it at least somewhat symbolically, with the removal
of all the coal pollution in London serving as a
stand in for the removal of corruption and unwanted politics
from the British government. Of course, people had been writing
about smoke, bad smells, air pollution, and the industrial burning
(19:33):
of coal for centuries, but Fumafujium is seen as the
first serious work devoted to air pollution. It's only about
twenty four pages long, and its full title is Fubafujium
or the inconvenience of the air and smoke of London dissipated,
together with some remedies humbly proposed by j. E Esquire
(19:54):
to His Sacred Majesty and to the Parliament now assembled.
Its title page includes a Latin epigraph from Lucretius's De
rerum natur, which translates approximately as how easily the heavy
smoke of coal seeps into the brain. This pamphlet starts
with a letter addressed to the King. Eveland describes walking
(20:16):
in the palace at Whitehall and seeing smoke coming from
tunnels near Northumberland House. He says this smoke had invaded
the court, quote that all the rooms, galleries and places
about it were filled and infested with it, and that
to such a degree as men could hardly discern one
another for the cloud that none could support without manifest inconveniency.
(20:41):
He describes this cloud as a threat to the King's
health and goes on to say, quote, your Majesty, who
is a lover of noble buildings, gardens, pictures, and all
royal magnificences, must needs desire to be freed from this
prodigious annoyance, and which is so great an enemy to
their luster and beating beauty, that where at once enters
(21:02):
there can nothing remain long in its native splendor and perfection.
He says, the king's sister, Henrietta Ann, Duchess of Orleans,
had also complained of the effects of the smoke in
her breast and her lungs. Having established the effects of
the smoke on the king and his family, Eveling goes
on to say, quote evil is so epidemical, endangering as
(21:26):
well the health of your subjects, as it sullies the
glory of this your imperial seat. Next was a note
to the reader, in which Evelin says he has been
quote frequently displeased at the small advance and improvement of
public works in this nation, wherein it seems to be
much inferior to the countries and kingdoms which are round
(21:46):
about it, especially during these late years of our sad confusions.
But now that God has miraculously restored to us our prince,
a prince of so magnanimous and public a spirit, we
may promise ourselves not only a recovery of our former splendor,
but also whatever any of our neighbors enjoy of more
universal benefit for health or ornament In some whatever, may
(22:10):
do honor to a nation so perfectly capable of all advantages.
The text itself starts by discussing the importance of air,
noting that Philosophers had named the air as the window
to the soul. He walks through what he sees as
some of the finest qualities of London, like its position
(22:30):
on good ground, with good soil, with the River Thames,
allowing goods to be brought in from the sea and
the land, and when untainted by smoke, a sweet and
wholesome air.
Speaker 1 (22:43):
He describes the culinary fires kept in people's homes as
not responsible for the problems of coal smoke, but instead
blames them on the industrial fires of quote brewers, dyers,
lime burners, salt and soap boilers, and some other private trade.
He goes on to say, quote, while these are belching
it forth their sooty jaws, the city of London resembles
(23:06):
the face rather of Mount Etna, the court of Vulcans, Stromboli,
or the suburbs of Hell, than an assembly of rational creatures,
and the imperial feet of our incomparable monarch.
Speaker 2 (23:18):
Later he writes, quote, it is this horrid smoke which
obscures our churches and makes our palaces look old, which
fouls our clothes and corrupts the waters. So as the
very rain and refreshing dews which fall in the several
seasons precipitate this impure vapor, which, with its black and
tenacious quality, spots and contaminates whatsoever is exposed to it.
(23:44):
He goes on to describe the evils of this smoke,
like yellowing pictures and hangings, ruining clothes that are left
out to dry, killing bees and flowers and gardens, and
making fruit taste bitter when fruit can grow at all,
and its affects on the body, the lungs and larynx
and throat and voice. He cites an expert physician as
(24:05):
saying coal smoke causes consumption, disis and indisposition of the lungs.
Consumption and tysis both mean tuberculosis, which is caused by bacteria,
something that was not known at the time, But tuberculosis
and the other lung conditions like asthma are definitely affected
by air pollution. The second part of this pamphlet offers
(24:27):
remedies for these issues, and we will get to that
after a sponsor break. The second part of John Evelyn's
Fomafugium offers solutions for London's smoke problems. He notes that
there are not many materials that quote burn clear, and
(24:48):
that supplying the entire city of London with wood is.
Speaker 1 (24:53):
Just not possible.
Speaker 2 (24:55):
He does argue that it is possible for London to
be supplied with a lot more wood and at better
prices by more actively planting forests and then harvesting the
wood after those trees mature, and then continuing those plantings
to keep the cycle going. This has some overlap with
what he would later write in his book Silva, which
(25:16):
we mentioned earlier. Among other things, Silver recommends a prohibition
on the cutting of trees more than quote one foot
square within twenty two miles of London and encourages the
intentional planting of seedlings on estates. This was both to
beautify the country and provide the benefits of trees and shade,
(25:37):
and to ensure that there was an ongoing supply of
wood for burning fuel and other uses. Fumafugium also recommends
the removal of trades that were the biggest nuisances to
the air of the city, like the brewers and the
soap boilers, and all those other ones that he lifted off.
He proposes that they be moved five or six miles
(25:58):
away below the Thames, so the smoke will not be
an issue for the residents of London.
Speaker 1 (26:04):
While this definitely would have improved air quality in London,
he does not really engage with what it would mean
for the people already living in the areas that these
industries would theoretically be moved to. He does, however, speculate
that cold air rising from the surrounding marshes and fens
would mix with the smoke and render it less noxious. Also,
(26:26):
just as a note, the areas he was talking about
are all considered parts of London today. Yeah, Like it
sort of.
Speaker 2 (26:33):
Makes it sound like he's going to send them away
far far into the country, but that it is all
of it is really London now.
Speaker 1 (26:41):
Now those are just neighborhoods.
Speaker 2 (26:43):
Yeah yeah, yeah. From there, Evelyn argues that this move
would provide jobs, since waterman would be needed to move
all those goods that were made by all those industries
back into London, and he says that it would help
protect London from fire, something that seems almost prophetic given
the devastation of the Great Fire of London, which took
(27:05):
place five years after he wrote this. He notes that
laws could be passed to accomplish this, and that there
had been such laws previously. He quotes the full text
of one that was passed during the reign of King
James the first and sixth.
Speaker 1 (27:19):
He also touches on other steps that could make the
air of London more wholesome beyond the issue of coal smoke.
This includes prohibiting burials within the city. Over the course
of his life, Evelyn also wrote other work that advocated
for the establishment of garden cemeteries to act as both
burial places for the dead and as beautifying public green space.
(27:43):
In this work, Evelan also advocates for moving some of
the stinkier occupations out of the city, although not as
far away as what he proposed for the coal burners.
That included people like butchers, fishmongers, and candle makers who
were making their candles primarily from beefed In Fumafujim's third section,
Eveland calls for all the low grounds around London to
(28:06):
be planted in fields of twenty thirty or forty acres
or more. These would be separated and enclosed by fences,
or palisades, and planted quote not much unlike to what
his Majesty has already begun by the wall from Old
Spring Garden to Saint James's in that park. They would
be elegantly arranged and diligently kept and supplied with quote
(28:29):
such shrubs as yield the most fragrant and odoriferous flowers,
and are apt to tinge the air upon every gentle
emission at a great distance. We already talked about how
he loved gardening and botany and nessas where he used
that knowledge to list off a number of possible plants.
They included sweetbriar, white and yellow, jasmine, bay, juniper, lavender, rosemary,
(28:53):
and hops. And then in the spaces between those fences
and palisades, he recommends planting beds of flowers, including carnations,
violets and cowslips, lilies, narcissus, and strawberries. He thought that
if fields like.
Speaker 2 (29:08):
This were planted all around London, then the wind would
perpetually be bringing good smells into the city. And then
in the wintertime, branches and blossoms that had been pruned
or picked from the plants could be burned for their fragrance.
These horticultural improvements may have been inspired by Eveland's friend
John Beal, who had made some similar proposals a few
(29:31):
years before. Beale had written a series of letters about
these ideas to Samuel Hartleb, who was also a member
of the Royal Society, and Heartleb had passed those on
to evelin fibafugim ends quote and this is what I,
in short, had to offer for the improvement and melioration
of the air about London, and with which I shall
(29:54):
conclude this discourse. Eveland delivered this proposal to the King,
and it seemed like Charles might have some interest in
pursuing it. For a couple of days he discussed it
at various meals and events, but none of Evelyn's proposals
were ultimately adopted, and while he was appointed to various commissions,
(30:14):
this did not lead to the kind of work that
Evelyn had hoped to be doing or the kind of
income he hoped to earn from it. In particular, his
role on the Commission for Sick and Wounded Mariners and
Prisoners of War was really hard work, and it was
personally expensive, and it involved his being exposed to illnesses,
(30:34):
including the plague. However, from Aphogium went on to have
a life of its own that extended beyond Evelyn's lifetime.
It was reprinted several times during the eighteenth century in
response to rising rates of pollution and efforts to mitigate it.
One of those reprintings was in seventeen seventy two by
(30:55):
Samuel Pegg the Younger, and his preface, Peg wrote quote,
we may observe how much the evil is increased since
the time this treatise was written.
Speaker 1 (31:07):
Fumafujium has been reprinted at other points in the years
since then. For example, in nineteen thirty, during debates over
a potential new power station being built in Chelsea, the
Royal Society reprinted it quote in accordance with a general
desire reported in The Thames for November twenty ninth, nineteen
twenty nine, when an extension of power stations emitting presumptuous
(31:30):
smoke in London was under discussion. In nineteen sixty one,
it was reprinted by the National Society for Clean Air.
Speaker 2 (31:39):
Yeah, obviously the air of London is much cleaner than
it was in the seventeenth century, but it continued to
be really like very polluted for a long time. We
have episodes about some of the more modern events that
were tied to the levels of air pollution, like the
Great London Smog is I think the most memorable one
(32:01):
when the atmospheric conditions led to a low lying fog
and smog layer that people literally could not see through.
Speaker 1 (32:10):
Yuck. No thanks. Do you have listener mail that is
hopefully not so coded with smog you can't see it?
I do have listener mail. It's from Caitlin. Caitln sends
us the greatest emails. Caitlin wrote, Dear Tracy and Holly.
I've written in many times over the years with anecdotes, connections,
(32:32):
or further details on various episodes, and the disability stories
always resonate deeply. I'm working on my PhD with a
very historical focus on some aspects of disability studies, so
most of this episode was familiar ground. That episode was
the one that was about the five oh four sit
ins from a couple of weeks ago. But I cannot
(32:54):
imagine the reach of this podcast when I lecture my
sixty students on five oh four EIGHTYA and other milestones
and the American disability rights movement each semester. It stays
pretty local to those students. Thank you for bringing this
topic to more people who might not have had the
chance to learn about this in school. I thought some
etymology might be interesting for y'all. Why do we say
(33:17):
disabled and when did we stop saying handicapped? The short
answer is disabled people asked us to, but the long
answer has more nuance. Handicap was actually a self identifier
used by disabled people as an alternative to crippled, which
had and has pejorative connotations of pity and shame attached.
Handicap comes from sports, where hand in cap style bets
(33:40):
would be used to try to compensate for horses or
athletes having different skill levels. The betters would each offer
a wager of what they thought the particular advantage should be,
so better one think seabiscuit should start three links ahead
of commodore, and better two think seabiscuit should start one
length ahead. New arbiter would decide which of those offers
(34:02):
was most fair, and the parties could either agree and
make a bet or take their hand out of the cap.
This process quickly became metaphorical rather than using an actual cap,
so for a person seeking another way to describe their
position in the world. The idea of a handicap, which
acknowledged and tried to account for a disadvantaged starting line,
(34:24):
was far superior to that of being crippled. Randolph Bourne,
who would be an excellent future episode, was one of
the first to use the term in writing in nineteen
eleven in his essay A Philosophy of Handicap, and also
published The Handicapped by one of them. It was the
preferred self identifier for other groups as well, including the
(34:44):
League of the Physically Handicapped, who lobbied for equal employment
assistance under the New Deal. In roughly the generation of
Judy Human, Kitty Kane, and Brad Lomax, disabled people began
to express frustration and disdain for handicapped. The reason why
varied from person to person, but one notion was that
(35:04):
it reinforced the idea that disability could be negated or rehabilitated,
rather than disability being an important and permanent part of
a person's identity. This got longer than I meant to
cons of writing about a topic I just finished pre
dissertation work on. Thank you again for your consistent dedication
to showcasing the history of every kind of person, and
(35:24):
every kind of place and every kind of time just
changed the way I think about the world. Best.
Speaker 2 (35:28):
Caitlin ps, here are some pictures of my two cats,
Sharky Torty and Dmitri Orange, enjoying the sunbeams that light
our living room each afternoon. These cats are always so precious.
We have three cat pictures, all featuring sunbeams.
Speaker 1 (35:46):
So good.
Speaker 2 (35:46):
So I love Caitlin's emails. They send us great emails,
many of them on these topics. I wanted to read
this one in particular because I noticed that language shift
in the five before research. I noticed that there were
people in that UH disabled activists, specifically in the five
(36:07):
oh four episode, who were using the term handicapped to
describe themselves, and that also there were people using the
word disabled and disabled seemed to be slightly more common
in the research in terms of like the first person quotes.
It was a little bit surprising to me, mostly because
(36:31):
I am a little bit younger than UH, like Judy
Human and Brad Lomax and Kitty Kohane. But my mom
worked with disabled people for a lot of her career,
and I was seeing the term handicapped in a lot
(36:52):
of what she was doing.
Speaker 1 (36:53):
Yeah.
Speaker 2 (36:53):
Uh, you know, a couple of decades after the five
O four sentance took place, I was a little little
bit surprised at how early the word disabled and disability
was in like the common use of the people who
were actually disability activists at that time. I also think
this is such a good email in terms of how
(37:14):
language works for a lot of groups and their lot
of self advocacy. And we have talked about that before
in other contexts like the civil rights movement and whether
the preferred term has been black or before that African
American or before that Negro, and a lot of those
have been self identifiers that people adopted because it felt
(37:39):
better and more reflective of their self and goals than
earlier terminology. But then eventually, for various reasons, a different
word becomes the preferred word. And that is normal, and
no one needs to have a panic about it, Uh right,
(37:59):
and act like it is the biggest burden in the
world to update your language use. Yeah, because someone has
asked you to.
Speaker 1 (38:08):
I'm super glad this came up, because I don't know
if you caught it. I caught it, and like my
brain didn't register it, and then like a week later,
my brain went, hey, that thing you were thinking, this
is what happened when we did behind the scenes, I
referred to a parking space as a handicapped parking space,
and I all right, occurred to me later and I
was like, I hope nobody thought I was being a
(38:29):
jerk there, But that's one of those things that you
and I grew up with them being always called that,
and like it's almost hardwired saying that on the sign.
Speaker 2 (38:38):
Yeah.
Speaker 1 (38:38):
Yeah, yeah, my brain just took like ten days to
do the math on it and be like you gotta uprate.
Speaker 2 (38:44):
Yeah, and today that would more often be like the
accessible parking spot. Yeah, the accessible did not even register
to me. So yeah, not intentionally thoughtless, but thoughtless just
the same.
Speaker 1 (38:56):
Yeah.
Speaker 2 (38:56):
So thank you again, Caitlin. You've sent us so many
great emails. I genuinely love them every time I get one.
If you would like to send us a note about
this or any other podcast or at History Podcasts at
iHeartRadio dot com, and you can subscribe to the show
on the iHeartRadio app or anywhere else you'd like to
get your podcasts. Stuff you missed in History Class is
(39:22):
a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit
the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to
your favorite shows.
Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production
of iHeartRadio.
Speaker 2 (00:11):
Hello, and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy V. Wilson
and I'm Holly Frye. While I was working on our
episode on Ricketts, I stumbled across a reference to a
work I had never heard of before, by someone I
do know about, but in a different context, and that
was Fumafujim. We're just that's how we're gonna say it, Fumafujim,
(00:35):
who knows how he wanted it to be pronounced. That
was written by John Evelyn in sixteen sixty one. And
I knew of John Evelin mostly as a diarist. He
comes up a lot alongside his contemporary and fellow diarist,
Samuel Peeps. We've covered Samuel Peeps on the show before.
Fumafujim was a treatise on air pollution, and it was
(00:57):
mentioned in the Ricketts research because of the possible role
of air pollution in an apparent rise in rickets in
the seventeenth century. In that moment, I kind of thought, wow,
John Evelyn wrote a treatise on air pollution. I've had
no idea fascinating, And then I just mentally moved on
got back to my work. But the day that I
(01:17):
finished the Rickets outline, news broke that in the US,
the Environmental Protection Agency is going to stop factoring the
economic cost of harm to human health into decisions about
air pollution regulations. A spokesperson from the agency said that
they are still considering health impacts, but that there won't
(01:39):
be a monetary estimate because those numbers are too uncertain. Okay,
but like, you can't really include the impact on human
health and a cost benefit analysis if you're not estimating
the cost. Also, this administration has been pretty straightforwardly hostile
to things like conservation and green energy. So when I
(02:05):
heard that, I immediately went back to fumafujium and the fact
that people have been talking about the harms of air
pollution for hundreds of years.
Speaker 1 (02:13):
So we're going to start this episode by looking at
John Eveland's biography. He was born in Surrey on October
thirty first, sixteen twenty, the fourth surviving child born to
Richard and Eleanor Comer Eveland. The Eveland family held the
patent on the manufacture of gunpowder, which traced back to
John's great grandfather, who had brought the manufacture of gunpowder
(02:35):
to England. The family lived at Wooden House, which was
on a seven hundred acre estate. This is a hotel,
conference center, and wedding venue today to give you a
sense of the scale. Richard had an income of about
four thousand pounds a year. In other words, this was
a wealthy family, although since he was the second son,
(02:57):
John was not expected to inherit much of this. When
he was about five, John was sent to be raised
by his maternal grandparents. From a very young age, he
liked to draw and to sketch, and he started keeping
a diary at the age of eleven. He may have
started this diary by writing his notes in an almanac.
He reformatted his entries later on, and at first he
(03:20):
included both personal reflections and historic and newsworthy events, but
eventually his diary would focus almost entirely on the latter.
Speaker 2 (03:30):
John's sister, Elizabeth, died in sixteen thirty four at the
age of about twenty, and then his mother died a
year later. Of what he described as excessive remorse over
the deaths of Elizabeth and of other siblings who had
died when they were babies. John was only fifteen when
his mother died. In sixteen thirty seven, John and two
(03:51):
brothers went to the Middle Temple, one of the four
inns of Court of England and Wales, where people went
to study law and be called to the bar. This
was really more.
Speaker 1 (04:01):
About social connections than law study, though.
Speaker 2 (04:05):
That same year he was admitted to Balliol College, Oxford.
He left this college without finishing a degree, that was
not uncommon for men of his station in the seventeenth century.
He also didn't feel like he was prepared for college, though,
both because he did not think his earlier education at
a free school had been very good and because he
(04:26):
had not really applied himself to it. In sixteen forty,
when John was twenty, his father died, and at that
point his older brother inherited Wooton House. The following year,
Eveland traveled to the continent, touring Holland and Belgium and
very briefly volunteering for military service before returning to England.
(04:47):
After years of conflict between King Charles the First and parliament,
a civil war started in sixteen forty two, with Royalists
fighting against Parliamentarians, and this put Evil in a difficult position.
He was unquestionably a Royalist, but Wooden House was in
territory controlled by the Parliamentarians. Evelin decided to return to
(05:10):
the continent rather than becoming involved in the war on
the Royalist side that would have risked the confiscation of
the family estate by the Parliamentarians.
Speaker 1 (05:21):
Evelin spent about four years on a grand tour of
France and Italy, traveling and learning about art and architecture.
Then in sixteen forty seven he married Mary Brown, whose
father was Charles the First's ambassador to Paris. Although Mary
was English, she had spent almost all of her life
in France. Her exact birth year is unclear, but she
(05:42):
was still in her early to mid teens and Evelyn
was twenty six. They do not seem to have lived
together until about three years after the wedding, though she
is described as Evelyn's intellectual equal and as being very
kind and sweet. She also put a lot more effort
and care into the education of their children than John
(06:03):
had experienced himself. King Charles the First was executed in
sixteen forty nine, and his son, Charles the Second fled
to France in sixteen fifty one. That effectively ended the
Civil War. Oliver Cromwell became Lord Protector of the Commonwealth
of England, Scotland and Ireland. John Eveland's loyalties were not
(06:25):
changed at this point, and his wife's family were also Royalists,
but now that the war was over, he thought it
was time to return to England. He and Mary traveled separately,
and both of them arrived in sixteen fifty two. Eveland
never left England after this. John and Mary lived at
Sayes Court, Deptford, which had been occupied by Mary's family
(06:47):
for generations, although since it had been confiscated by the Parliamentarians,
Eveland had to do a lot of work to secure
the lease to it. The first of their eight children
was born in sixteen fifty two, although only four of
those children lived to adulthood and only one of them
outlived John and Mary.
Speaker 2 (07:07):
The sixteen fifties were difficult for evelin he was a
Royalist and publishing Royalist tracts, and England no longer had
a monarch. The loss of three of his children over
the course of just a few years was also devastating
for the whole family. Also, while John and Mary both
had affluent upbringings, their life together was on a much
(07:29):
smaller budget. Since John was the second son and had
not inherited most of the family's wealth, they were not
poor by any means.
Speaker 1 (07:38):
This was more like they had to be really.
Speaker 2 (07:40):
Selective about which luxuries they could afford.
Speaker 1 (07:45):
Eveland put some of his efforts into starting a garden
at Says Court, one that he aspired to turn into
a paradise on earth. This sparked a greater interest in
botany and garden design, and he would eventually go on
to design gardens for his friends. He also did a
lot of writing, including scientific writing. He translated the first
(08:06):
book of Lucretius's didactic poem De rerum Natura into English
verse with a commentary in sixteen fifty six. This book,
which is composed as a hymn, lays out the basics
of the universe as composed of atoms. Evelin was connected
to a lot of the people who had established the
Royal Society, and he became a member of that society
(08:28):
once it was established in sixteen sixty one. That's also
the year he wrote Fumafujium, which we'll be talking more
about in a bit. Evelan wrote about thirty books over
the course of his life, and several of them were
focused on conservation and the natural world. Sometimes he's described
as England's first environmentalist. Silva or a Discourse of forest,
(08:51):
trees and the Propagation of timber in His Majesty's Dominions,
was published in sixteen sixty four and it's one of
the earliest published works on tree, CON's and forestry. Soil,
A philosophical discourse of Earth relating to the culture and
improvement of it for vegetation and the propagation of plants,
came out in sixteen seventy six. Later editions of that
(09:14):
book use the title Terra rather than Soil. Other works
over the course of Evelin's life included a book on
etching and engraving called Sculptura, a book on metals called
Numis Mata, and Aceteria, a discourse on salads that is,
of course about salads. He also wrote a biography of
(09:36):
Margaret Godolphin, who was a maid of honor at court because,
of course, after the monarchy had been re established. Evelin's
relationship with her has been framed as paternal and mentoring,
but also as kind of an emotionally very intense friendship
bordering on an affair, possibly manipulative on Evelin's part. Margaret
(09:57):
secretly married Sydney Godolphin in sixteen seve twenty six and
died in childbirth two years later, and it's after that
that Evelyn wrote this biography. Although Eveland did not really
care for court or public life after the restoration of
Charles the Second in sixteen sixty he did serve on
a series of commissions and councils which continued during the
(10:18):
reign of James the Seventh and Second. These included the
Commission to rebuild London after the Great Fire of sixteen
sixty six, and the Council of Foreign Plantations, which governed
England's slave plantations in the colonies. King James also named
Eveland one of the Commissioners of the Privy Seal. Evelyn
(10:38):
also served on the Commission for Sick and Wounded Mariners
and Prisoners of War during the Dutch Wars of the
sixteen sixties and seventies. This is probably when he became
friends with Samuel Peeps. Samuel PEAPs was working with the
Navy at that point. In our episode about Samuel Peeps,
which will run as a Saturday Classic soon, we said
(10:59):
that Peeps just found everything in the world around him
really interesting and worth knowing about, and this was really
true of Evelin as well. In sixteen ninety one, Evelyn
inherited Wooden House after the death of his older brother's
last surviving son. He moved there with his wife in
sixteen ninety four. Evelan died in London on February third,
(11:22):
seventeen oh six, at the age of eighty five. Most
of Evelyn's works were published posthumously, including his diary, which
was published for the first time in eighteen eighteen. He
also left behind a ton of correspondents in addition to
his more formal books and writings. An archive of his
personal papers is in the British Library today, although much
(11:45):
of his personal library, which numbered more than three thousand volumes,
was broken up and sold at auction in the nineteen seventies.
Let's take a quick sponsor break and then we will
talk about fumafujium.
Speaker 2 (12:07):
To set the stage for our discussion of John Evelyn's fumafujium,
we need to talk about coal. Historically, people in Britain
have burned a range of materials for heat and fuel,
including peat, dried dung wood, and charcoal, which is made
with wood and other organic materials. In London in particular,
the main sources of fuel for centuries were wood and charcoal,
(12:30):
which most people just called coal. Generally speaking, people did
not find wood smoke to be all that unpleasant, and
charcoal didn't produce a lot of smoke when it burned.
The Romans mined and used bituminous coal in Britain, but
after the end of the Roman Empire most coal mining
there stopped. Then around the twelfth century people started extracting
(12:53):
coal from along the River Tyne in Newcastle and from
cliffs around the coast of Northumberland and South Wales. It's
possible that this coastal location is the source of the
term sea coal, although there's also speculation that it's a
reference to coal that was washed ashore or exposed by erosion,
or that the name came from the coal being transported
(13:14):
by sea. Whatever it may be, the term sea coal
differentiated bituminous coal from charcoal. Generally speaking, coal produces more
heavier smoke than wood or charcoal, and the coal that
was being burned at this time also probably contained a
lot more sulfur than what's in use today. That made
(13:35):
its smoke even more unpleasant. Even so, some industries started
adopting coal as a fuel source in the thirteenth century,
especially brewers and metalsmiths, and some people also started using
coal to heat their homes. One reason for this was
that centuries of wood and charcoal use as fuel had
(13:56):
led to deforestation, so wood was becoming harder to get
and more expensive. Blacksmiths also used bellows to make their
fires hotter, and coal did not spark as much as
other fuels did when they did this.
Speaker 1 (14:12):
Since the smoke from wood and charcoal had not been
perceived as all that noxious, people hadn't built many tall
chimneys to try to carry it farther away from the
ground before it was released into the air. That compounded
air quality problems. When people started burning more.
Speaker 2 (14:28):
Coal, there's still a lot more coal smoke a lot
closer to the ground than there would have been had
it been sent up a chimney.
Speaker 1 (14:36):
First.
Speaker 2 (14:38):
In the thirteenth century, Parliament started making various efforts to
regulate the industrial use of coal, especially from breweries. Edward
the first prohibited the burning of sea coal in thirteen
oh six. People kept burning coal in spite of that,
band though, the burning of coal in Britain declined over
(14:59):
the latter half of the fourteenth century, but that wasn't
because of objections to the smoke. It was because so
many people died during the Black Death. The dramatic drop
in population and corresponding drop in demand for fuel also
meant that over the next decades Britain's forests started to regrow.
But then during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a combination
(15:21):
of factors led to more widespread coal use. Another was
another wave of deforestation as Britain's population and fuel use
started growing again. Another is the little ice age and
the need to burn more fuel to stay warm because
it was colder and wetter. And a third is that
a lot of England's roads connecting the forests to city
(15:44):
like London, were in really terrible condition, and that was
only getting worse over time. Moving wood into the cities
was increasingly difficult and expensive.
Speaker 1 (15:56):
England's towns and cities, especially London, became aggressively dirtier and
more polluted, leading Parliament and a series of monarchs to
once again attempt to regulate the burning of coal. For
the most part, this was not about the idea of
public health or coal smoke being bad for people in general.
It was about the health of the monarch and their
(16:17):
family and what the monarch found unpleasant or distasteful. For example,
under Queen Elizabeth the First in fifteen seventy eight, the
burning of coal was banned in London, but only when
Parliament was in session.
Speaker 2 (16:32):
Then, in sixteen oh three, James the sixth of Scotland
was crowned as James the First of England and Ireland.
Coal was more widely used in Scotland, and its acceptance
by the crown and use in the royal household helped
pave the way for its use elsewhere in England. More
industries started using coal as fuel. At the same time,
(16:55):
brewers in particular were still seen as polluting the air
with all of their coals, and there were ongoing efforts
to either regulate brewers use of coal or to move
the breweries out of London in the first part of
the seventeenth century.
Speaker 1 (17:11):
Soon London was burning more coal than probably any other
city in Europe, and that brings us to John Eveland's Fumafujium,
written in sixteen sixty one. Eveland started on this very
shortly after the restoration of Charles the Second in sixteen sixty.
As we've already said, Eveland didn't really like court or
(17:31):
public life. He much preferred to work in his garden
and read and write about things that interested him. I
feel you, Eveland. But he also had high hopes for
what life would be like now that England had a
king again. Eveland thought he might be able to encourage
the king to pursue things that would improve England as
a nation. Evelan also hoped this would help him secure
(17:56):
some kind of royal appointment, one that would let him
do good work and be paid for it. And he
hoped to find a place at court for his wife.
It's a little unclear how much Mary may have wanted
this for herself, but she had grown up in France
in much more affluent circumstances than what she had in England.
She definitely did have friends among the English nobility and
(18:18):
the elite. Fumafujium which the King commissioned was connected to
all of this. Eveland hoped to both impress the King
and encourage him to do something about the problem of
coal smoke in London. And he thought that if the
King put these recommendations into action. The results would reflect
well on the monarch and elevate him in the eyes
(18:40):
of his subjects. The issue of air pollution was also
a natural fit for this, given Charles the Second's focus
on beauty and decorum at his court.
Speaker 2 (18:50):
An article by Mark Jenner of the University of Yorick
argues that Fumafujium was also written partly as a political allegory.
On one level, it was definitely about the issue of
air pollution and coal smoke. Like John Evelyn thought, it
was a way to maybe help the problem get taken
care of, while also making the king look really good
(19:12):
by taking care of that problem. But Evelin might also
have meant it at least somewhat symbolically, with the removal
of all the coal pollution in London serving as a
stand in for the removal of corruption and unwanted politics
from the British government. Of course, people had been writing
about smoke, bad smells, air pollution, and the industrial burning
(19:33):
of coal for centuries, but Fumafujium is seen as the
first serious work devoted to air pollution. It's only about
twenty four pages long, and its full title is Fubafujium
or the inconvenience of the air and smoke of London dissipated,
together with some remedies humbly proposed by j. E Esquire
(19:54):
to His Sacred Majesty and to the Parliament now assembled.
Its title page includes a Latin epigraph from Lucretius's De
rerum natur, which translates approximately as how easily the heavy
smoke of coal seeps into the brain. This pamphlet starts
with a letter addressed to the King. Eveland describes walking
(20:16):
in the palace at Whitehall and seeing smoke coming from
tunnels near Northumberland House. He says this smoke had invaded
the court, quote that all the rooms, galleries and places
about it were filled and infested with it, and that
to such a degree as men could hardly discern one
another for the cloud that none could support without manifest inconveniency.
(20:41):
He describes this cloud as a threat to the King's
health and goes on to say, quote, your Majesty, who
is a lover of noble buildings, gardens, pictures, and all
royal magnificences, must needs desire to be freed from this
prodigious annoyance, and which is so great an enemy to
their luster and beating beauty, that where at once enters
(21:02):
there can nothing remain long in its native splendor and perfection.
He says, the king's sister, Henrietta Ann, Duchess of Orleans,
had also complained of the effects of the smoke in
her breast and her lungs. Having established the effects of
the smoke on the king and his family, Eveling goes
on to say, quote evil is so epidemical, endangering as
(21:26):
well the health of your subjects, as it sullies the
glory of this your imperial seat. Next was a note
to the reader, in which Evelin says he has been
quote frequently displeased at the small advance and improvement of
public works in this nation, wherein it seems to be
much inferior to the countries and kingdoms which are round
(21:46):
about it, especially during these late years of our sad confusions.
But now that God has miraculously restored to us our prince,
a prince of so magnanimous and public a spirit, we
may promise ourselves not only a recovery of our former splendor,
but also whatever any of our neighbors enjoy of more
universal benefit for health or ornament In some whatever, may
(22:10):
do honor to a nation so perfectly capable of all advantages.
The text itself starts by discussing the importance of air,
noting that Philosophers had named the air as the window
to the soul. He walks through what he sees as
some of the finest qualities of London, like its position
(22:30):
on good ground, with good soil, with the River Thames,
allowing goods to be brought in from the sea and
the land, and when untainted by smoke, a sweet and
wholesome air.
Speaker 1 (22:43):
He describes the culinary fires kept in people's homes as
not responsible for the problems of coal smoke, but instead
blames them on the industrial fires of quote brewers, dyers,
lime burners, salt and soap boilers, and some other private trade.
He goes on to say, quote, while these are belching
it forth their sooty jaws, the city of London resembles
(23:06):
the face rather of Mount Etna, the court of Vulcans, Stromboli,
or the suburbs of Hell, than an assembly of rational creatures,
and the imperial feet of our incomparable monarch.
Speaker 2 (23:18):
Later he writes, quote, it is this horrid smoke which
obscures our churches and makes our palaces look old, which
fouls our clothes and corrupts the waters. So as the
very rain and refreshing dews which fall in the several
seasons precipitate this impure vapor, which, with its black and
tenacious quality, spots and contaminates whatsoever is exposed to it.
(23:44):
He goes on to describe the evils of this smoke,
like yellowing pictures and hangings, ruining clothes that are left
out to dry, killing bees and flowers and gardens, and
making fruit taste bitter when fruit can grow at all,
and its affects on the body, the lungs and larynx
and throat and voice. He cites an expert physician as
(24:05):
saying coal smoke causes consumption, disis and indisposition of the lungs.
Consumption and tysis both mean tuberculosis, which is caused by bacteria,
something that was not known at the time, But tuberculosis
and the other lung conditions like asthma are definitely affected
by air pollution. The second part of this pamphlet offers
(24:27):
remedies for these issues, and we will get to that
after a sponsor break. The second part of John Evelyn's
Fomafugium offers solutions for London's smoke problems. He notes that
there are not many materials that quote burn clear, and
(24:48):
that supplying the entire city of London with wood is.
Speaker 1 (24:53):
Just not possible.
Speaker 2 (24:55):
He does argue that it is possible for London to
be supplied with a lot more wood and at better
prices by more actively planting forests and then harvesting the
wood after those trees mature, and then continuing those plantings
to keep the cycle going. This has some overlap with
what he would later write in his book Silva, which
(25:16):
we mentioned earlier. Among other things, Silver recommends a prohibition
on the cutting of trees more than quote one foot
square within twenty two miles of London and encourages the
intentional planting of seedlings on estates. This was both to
beautify the country and provide the benefits of trees and shade,
(25:37):
and to ensure that there was an ongoing supply of
wood for burning fuel and other uses. Fumafugium also recommends
the removal of trades that were the biggest nuisances to
the air of the city, like the brewers and the
soap boilers, and all those other ones that he lifted off.
He proposes that they be moved five or six miles
(25:58):
away below the Thames, so the smoke will not be
an issue for the residents of London.
Speaker 1 (26:04):
While this definitely would have improved air quality in London,
he does not really engage with what it would mean
for the people already living in the areas that these
industries would theoretically be moved to. He does, however, speculate
that cold air rising from the surrounding marshes and fens
would mix with the smoke and render it less noxious. Also,
(26:26):
just as a note, the areas he was talking about
are all considered parts of London today. Yeah, Like it
sort of.
Speaker 2 (26:33):
Makes it sound like he's going to send them away
far far into the country, but that it is all
of it is really London now.
Speaker 1 (26:41):
Now those are just neighborhoods.
Speaker 2 (26:43):
Yeah yeah, yeah. From there, Evelyn argues that this move
would provide jobs, since waterman would be needed to move
all those goods that were made by all those industries
back into London, and he says that it would help
protect London from fire, something that seems almost prophetic given
the devastation of the Great Fire of London, which took
(27:05):
place five years after he wrote this. He notes that
laws could be passed to accomplish this, and that there
had been such laws previously. He quotes the full text
of one that was passed during the reign of King
James the first and sixth.
Speaker 1 (27:19):
He also touches on other steps that could make the
air of London more wholesome beyond the issue of coal smoke.
This includes prohibiting burials within the city. Over the course
of his life, Evelyn also wrote other work that advocated
for the establishment of garden cemeteries to act as both
burial places for the dead and as beautifying public green space.
(27:43):
In this work, Evelan also advocates for moving some of
the stinkier occupations out of the city, although not as
far away as what he proposed for the coal burners.
That included people like butchers, fishmongers, and candle makers who
were making their candles primarily from beefed In Fumafujim's third section,
Eveland calls for all the low grounds around London to
(28:06):
be planted in fields of twenty thirty or forty acres
or more. These would be separated and enclosed by fences,
or palisades, and planted quote not much unlike to what
his Majesty has already begun by the wall from Old
Spring Garden to Saint James's in that park. They would
be elegantly arranged and diligently kept and supplied with quote
(28:29):
such shrubs as yield the most fragrant and odoriferous flowers,
and are apt to tinge the air upon every gentle
emission at a great distance. We already talked about how
he loved gardening and botany and nessas where he used
that knowledge to list off a number of possible plants.
They included sweetbriar, white and yellow, jasmine, bay, juniper, lavender, rosemary,
(28:53):
and hops. And then in the spaces between those fences
and palisades, he recommends planting beds of flowers, including carnations,
violets and cowslips, lilies, narcissus, and strawberries. He thought that
if fields like.
Speaker 2 (29:08):
This were planted all around London, then the wind would
perpetually be bringing good smells into the city. And then
in the wintertime, branches and blossoms that had been pruned
or picked from the plants could be burned for their fragrance.
These horticultural improvements may have been inspired by Eveland's friend
John Beal, who had made some similar proposals a few
(29:31):
years before. Beale had written a series of letters about
these ideas to Samuel Hartleb, who was also a member
of the Royal Society, and Heartleb had passed those on
to evelin fibafugim ends quote and this is what I,
in short, had to offer for the improvement and melioration
of the air about London, and with which I shall
(29:54):
conclude this discourse. Eveland delivered this proposal to the King,
and it seemed like Charles might have some interest in
pursuing it. For a couple of days he discussed it
at various meals and events, but none of Evelyn's proposals
were ultimately adopted, and while he was appointed to various commissions,
(30:14):
this did not lead to the kind of work that
Evelyn had hoped to be doing or the kind of
income he hoped to earn from it. In particular, his
role on the Commission for Sick and Wounded Mariners and
Prisoners of War was really hard work, and it was
personally expensive, and it involved his being exposed to illnesses,
(30:34):
including the plague. However, from Aphogium went on to have
a life of its own that extended beyond Evelyn's lifetime.
It was reprinted several times during the eighteenth century in
response to rising rates of pollution and efforts to mitigate it.
One of those reprintings was in seventeen seventy two by
(30:55):
Samuel Pegg the Younger, and his preface, Peg wrote quote,
we may observe how much the evil is increased since
the time this treatise was written.
Speaker 1 (31:07):
Fumafujium has been reprinted at other points in the years
since then. For example, in nineteen thirty, during debates over
a potential new power station being built in Chelsea, the
Royal Society reprinted it quote in accordance with a general
desire reported in The Thames for November twenty ninth, nineteen
twenty nine, when an extension of power stations emitting presumptuous
(31:30):
smoke in London was under discussion. In nineteen sixty one,
it was reprinted by the National Society for Clean Air.
Speaker 2 (31:39):
Yeah, obviously the air of London is much cleaner than
it was in the seventeenth century, but it continued to
be really like very polluted for a long time. We
have episodes about some of the more modern events that
were tied to the levels of air pollution, like the
Great London Smog is I think the most memorable one
(32:01):
when the atmospheric conditions led to a low lying fog
and smog layer that people literally could not see through.
Speaker 1 (32:10):
Yuck. No thanks. Do you have listener mail that is
hopefully not so coded with smog you can't see it?
I do have listener mail. It's from Caitlin. Caitln sends
us the greatest emails. Caitlin wrote, Dear Tracy and Holly.
I've written in many times over the years with anecdotes, connections,
(32:32):
or further details on various episodes, and the disability stories
always resonate deeply. I'm working on my PhD with a
very historical focus on some aspects of disability studies, so
most of this episode was familiar ground. That episode was
the one that was about the five oh four sit
ins from a couple of weeks ago. But I cannot
(32:54):
imagine the reach of this podcast when I lecture my
sixty students on five oh four EIGHTYA and other milestones
and the American disability rights movement each semester. It stays
pretty local to those students. Thank you for bringing this
topic to more people who might not have had the
chance to learn about this in school. I thought some
etymology might be interesting for y'all. Why do we say
(33:17):
disabled and when did we stop saying handicapped? The short
answer is disabled people asked us to, but the long
answer has more nuance. Handicap was actually a self identifier
used by disabled people as an alternative to crippled, which
had and has pejorative connotations of pity and shame attached.
Handicap comes from sports, where hand in cap style bets
(33:40):
would be used to try to compensate for horses or
athletes having different skill levels. The betters would each offer
a wager of what they thought the particular advantage should be,
so better one think seabiscuit should start three links ahead
of commodore, and better two think seabiscuit should start one
length ahead. New arbiter would decide which of those offers
(34:02):
was most fair, and the parties could either agree and
make a bet or take their hand out of the cap.
This process quickly became metaphorical rather than using an actual cap,
so for a person seeking another way to describe their
position in the world. The idea of a handicap, which
acknowledged and tried to account for a disadvantaged starting line,
(34:24):
was far superior to that of being crippled. Randolph Bourne,
who would be an excellent future episode, was one of
the first to use the term in writing in nineteen
eleven in his essay A Philosophy of Handicap, and also
published The Handicapped by one of them. It was the
preferred self identifier for other groups as well, including the
(34:44):
League of the Physically Handicapped, who lobbied for equal employment
assistance under the New Deal. In roughly the generation of
Judy Human, Kitty Kane, and Brad Lomax, disabled people began
to express frustration and disdain for handicapped. The reason why
varied from person to person, but one notion was that
(35:04):
it reinforced the idea that disability could be negated or rehabilitated,
rather than disability being an important and permanent part of
a person's identity. This got longer than I meant to
cons of writing about a topic I just finished pre
dissertation work on. Thank you again for your consistent dedication
to showcasing the history of every kind of person, and
(35:24):
every kind of place and every kind of time just
changed the way I think about the world. Best.
Speaker 2 (35:28):
Caitlin ps, here are some pictures of my two cats,
Sharky Torty and Dmitri Orange, enjoying the sunbeams that light
our living room each afternoon. These cats are always so precious.
We have three cat pictures, all featuring sunbeams.
Speaker 1 (35:46):
So good.
Speaker 2 (35:46):
So I love Caitlin's emails. They send us great emails,
many of them on these topics. I wanted to read
this one in particular because I noticed that language shift
in the five before research. I noticed that there were
people in that UH disabled activists, specifically in the five
(36:07):
oh four episode, who were using the term handicapped to
describe themselves, and that also there were people using the
word disabled and disabled seemed to be slightly more common
in the research in terms of like the first person quotes.
It was a little bit surprising to me, mostly because
(36:31):
I am a little bit younger than UH, like Judy
Human and Brad Lomax and Kitty Kohane. But my mom
worked with disabled people for a lot of her career,
and I was seeing the term handicapped in a lot
(36:52):
of what she was doing.
Speaker 1 (36:53):
Yeah.
Speaker 2 (36:53):
Uh, you know, a couple of decades after the five
O four sentance took place, I was a little little
bit surprised at how early the word disabled and disability
was in like the common use of the people who
were actually disability activists at that time. I also think
this is such a good email in terms of how
(37:14):
language works for a lot of groups and their lot
of self advocacy. And we have talked about that before
in other contexts like the civil rights movement and whether
the preferred term has been black or before that African
American or before that Negro, and a lot of those
have been self identifiers that people adopted because it felt
(37:39):
better and more reflective of their self and goals than
earlier terminology. But then eventually, for various reasons, a different
word becomes the preferred word. And that is normal, and
no one needs to have a panic about it, Uh right,
(37:59):
and act like it is the biggest burden in the
world to update your language use. Yeah, because someone has
asked you to.
Speaker 1 (38:08):
I'm super glad this came up, because I don't know
if you caught it. I caught it, and like my
brain didn't register it, and then like a week later,
my brain went, hey, that thing you were thinking, this
is what happened when we did behind the scenes, I
referred to a parking space as a handicapped parking space,
and I all right, occurred to me later and I
was like, I hope nobody thought I was being a
(38:29):
jerk there, But that's one of those things that you
and I grew up with them being always called that,
and like it's almost hardwired saying that on the sign.
Speaker 2 (38:38):
Yeah.
Speaker 1 (38:38):
Yeah, yeah, my brain just took like ten days to
do the math on it and be like you gotta uprate.
Speaker 2 (38:44):
Yeah, and today that would more often be like the
accessible parking spot. Yeah, the accessible did not even register
to me. So yeah, not intentionally thoughtless, but thoughtless just
the same.
Speaker 1 (38:56):
Yeah.
Speaker 2 (38:56):
So thank you again, Caitlin. You've sent us so many
great emails. I genuinely love them every time I get one.
If you would like to send us a note about
this or any other podcast or at History Podcasts at
iHeartRadio dot com, and you can subscribe to the show
on the iHeartRadio app or anywhere else you'd like to
get your podcasts. Stuff you missed in History Class is
(39:22):
a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit
the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to
your favorite shows.
Stuff You Missed in History Class News
Hosts And Creators
Holly Frey
Tracy Wilson
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