April 3, 2017 • 14 mins
Bird excrement was once so valuable to farmers that the U.S. government tried to claim all of it. It's possible to get pregnant a second time when you're already pregnant. Plus: When did we start calling citizens consumers?
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Episode Transcript
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Speaker 1 (00:01):
Welcome to hows To Works Now. I'm your host Lauren Vogelbam,
a researcher and writer here at How Stuff Works. Every week,
I'm bringing you three stories from our team about the
weird and wondrous advances we've seen in science, technology, and culture.
This week. You can get pregnant when you're already pregnant
and unrelated. There was a time not all that long
(00:23):
ago when farmers went absolutely mad for bird poop. But
first staff editor Christopher Hasiotis and our freelance writer Patrick
Jake Haiger explore a question when we were curious about
when and why did America start calling its citizens consumers.
(00:44):
It's hard to say exactly when it started, but in
the United States there seems to be an increasing tendency
to use the term consumer interchangeably with citizen, even when
the discussion isn't taking place strictly in an economic framework,
and some political experts say that the choice of words
may reveal as subtle, but were some shift in how
we see ourselves and our role in American society away
(01:04):
from the notion of working together with others towards the
common good and toward a nation of individuals primarily motivated
by self interest. Dr Jason Sadowski, an economist and lecturer,
wrote the two thousand fifteen article stopped Treating Citizens as consumers.
He says that using consumer interchangeably with citizen has become
part of our default discourse, the normal way we view
(01:26):
society and people just look at the recent presidential election,
he says. This consumer versus citizen language is often used
to when analyst and pundits talk about elections. Voters are
just consumers with preferences, and the election is a marketplace
of products to choose from in the store. We vote
with our dollar, and we're told that elections are functionally
the same thing. You just use a ballot instead of
(01:46):
a buck to cast your vote. This understanding of democratic
processes as a marketplace is just one more place where
the citizen is overtaken by the consumer. Taking a broader view,
both words have been around for centuries. The words citizen
dates back to the thirteen hundreds that it originally meant
the inhabitant of a city and didn't take on its
present meaning a person who has rights and responsibilities in
(02:07):
a society until around the year sixteen ten. The word consumer,
on the other hand arose in the fourteen hundreds. The
back then it meant someone who squandered or waste things,
and it took on a less pejorative economic meaning person
who uses goods and services and does the opposite as
someone who's a producer around seventy five. Michael Munger, the
(02:28):
director of the Philosophy of Politics and Economics program at
Duke University's Political Science Department, notes that the word consumer
seldom appeared in print until about the year nineteen hundred,
but starting around then it steadily rose until it passed
up citizen in frequency in the late nineteen fifties, and
these days the word consumer shows up about three times
as often as citizen. Munger theorizes that the shift in
(02:49):
usage had to do with a rise in the twentieth
century of progressive politics. The progressives primarily saw citizens as
being helpless trapped by large forces, he says, especially corporations.
The New Deal social programs devised by Franklin Roosevelt in
the nineteen thirties and Lyndon Johnson's Great Society Effort of
the nineteen sixties, amonger argues, reinforce the idea that participation
(03:10):
in politics was mostly a way of getting your share
of consumption. Politicians increasing use in the nineteen sixties of
sophisticated marketing techniques borrowed from sellers of products breakfast, seal cars, anties,
persperants may also have played a role. Today, campaigns gather
and analyze mountains of data to conduct micro targeting efforts,
which look at individual voters attitudes and behaviors and what
(03:32):
might best be the way to reach them. And government
itself has been judged as if it were consumer business.
The American Customer Satisfaction Indexed, for instance, even rates the
federal government on how people feel about their interactions with
it if you're wandering by the way. It got a
sixty eight percent positive rating in two thousand sixteen, up
from sixty three point nine percent the previous year. So
(03:52):
consumer citizen, This isn't just semantics. The words we use
can have an impact on how we live. A two
thousand twelve study in the journal Psychological Science found that
the choice of words may exert a subtle influence upon
how we see ourselves. In one part of the study,
people who answered a consumer response survey tended to express
more materialistic, self centered values than those who answered a
(04:14):
Citizens Survey. In another part of the study, researchers presented
subjects with hypothetical situations in which people had to share
water from a well and labeled them as either consumers
or citizens. Subjects who got the consumer identity tended to
distrust others more about water sharing, felt less in partnership
with other subjects, and felt less personally responsible compared to
(04:35):
those who were labeled citizens. To the extent that the
role of citizen and consumers merging today, it seems to
underscore a shift away from viewing Americans as having responsibility
in our political system and toward a more individualistic idea
of what it means to be the American, says Josh Paysek,
an assistant professor of Communication studies at the University of Michigan.
(04:55):
He says, your job as an American citizen requires that
you fulfill key democra addic norms such as being informed,
deliberating about political issues, and participating in civic and political life.
As an American consumer, though your actions are relevant only
to the extent that they respond to economic incentives, the
responsibility to be engaged and participatory is not your own,
(05:17):
but instead depends on a system oriented to bring you in.
Frank Trentman, a professor of history at the University of
London an author of the book Empire of Things, How
we became a world of Consumers from the fifteenth century
to the twenty one, thinks the blurred distinction between consumer
and citizen may make it tougher for people to come
together to solve problems. He says, not all consumers see
(05:39):
the world in the same way, and hence concerted action
is difficult. That's why some would like to see us
go back to seeing ourselves differently. As political commentator Mark
Shields wrote in two thousand twelve, maybe it's time that
Americans started insisting that leaders treat them not like consumers,
but as citizens who recognize that we have, in addition
to rites and privileges, real obligations and responsibilities. Next up,
(06:06):
senior editor Katherine Whitbourne and our freelance writer Alia Howitt
bring us a story that goes against what most of
us learned in biology class. It's possible, though rare, to
get pregnant a second time while you're already pregnant. Finding
out you're carrying two or more babies at once can
be a pretty huge shock. Under normal circumstances. Now, imagine
(06:28):
you're one of the very few pregnancies involving multiple fetuses
of different ages of gestation at the same time. Someone's
got splanning to do. That's right, It's possible, although, and
we really must stress this extremely rare, to conceive a
child while already pregnant. The phenomenon is known in medical
circles as superfetation and involves two eggs, two different sperm,
(06:50):
and two different conception timeframes. This is different from something
called super fecundation, which is when a woman releases two
eggs in the same time period, each of which is
fertilized by the sperm of a different man. Only about
ten human cases of superfetation have been investigated, so it's
hard to put a firm time frame on just what
constitutes separate ages of gestation, but suspected superfetation does require
(07:15):
two separate ovulation incidences, one of them after an initial
pregnancy has already occurred. The human body is designed to
prevent superfetation from even being an issue. Once pregnant, a
woman's reproductive system isn't supposed to continue sending out eggs.
In fact, she's not supposed to avolate more than once
per cycle. Multiple ovulations can happen in the same cycle,
(07:36):
but that's when two eggs are released within the same
twenty four hour period, potentially resulting in the conception of
fraternal twins. Doctor Robert Atlas is the chair of the
Department of Astetrics and Gynecology and Mercy Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland.
He says that the presence of cervical mucus, which begins
to block the cervix almost immediately after conception, is typically
a major hindrance for follow up sperm. He says, you
(07:59):
only have two for maybe thirty six hours when the
cervical mucus is thin, where the sperm can penetrate and
get into the uterus. Although it's rare in humans, superfetation
is common certain animals like cats, panthers, and badgers. Some
animals even have multiple uterus is to accommodate the phenomenon.
That's not the only way in which human pregnancies are
different from other animals. We don't usually carry multiples, and
(08:20):
when we do, they're considered high risk. During his twenty
five years in practice, doctor Atlas has never encountered superfetation
in action, nor is he likely to, but if he did,
he'd probably draw the conclusion after considering more likely possibilities.
During a woman's ultrasound, you can measure the chron rump
length of her fetus. That's the length from the top
of its head the crown to the bottom of its
(08:42):
products the rump, and it's used to determine a baby's
gestational age. If there's a length difference between two babies,
a doctor would be more likely to think the smaller
one might have a potential abnormality, rather than this being
a case of superfetation. Some experts are skeptical as to
whether human superfetation is even nothing in the first place.
Doctor Jimbotoni, maternal fetal medicine expert, says that most of
(09:06):
the alleged cases of human superfetation are really cases of
twin fetuses of the same age with on equal development. Fortunately,
in cases of suspected superfetation, both babies have thrived. Once
doctors recognized that one of the babies might be born
prematurely and take the right precautions, things seemed to turn
out back. Finally. This week, Managing editor Alison Loudermilk and
(09:34):
our freelancer kay Kirshner delve into a bit of seemingly
ridiculous history. Bird poop was once so valuable that the
United States passed a law claiming possession of all bird
poops that fell on unclaimed land. Let's travel to the
Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. This immense monument spans
(09:57):
three hundred seventy thousand square nautical miles that converts to
four nine thousand square miles. These protected islands and waters
stretch from Wake Addle in the northwest to Jarvis Island
in the southeast. Within this cluster of small islands, you
might find the sooty turn nesting in Jarvis Island, the
wandering tattler browsing around Palmyra Addle, and brown boobies roosting
(10:21):
on Kingman Reef. All of those birds mean you're going
to encounter something else, bird droppings. Brace yourself for a
little history lesson that just might make you take a
real interest in what islands have birds and thus bird droppings.
The lesson will be particularly useful if you're interested in
claiming an imperialist stake in deserted islands and declaring them
(10:43):
under vague, if legal American ownership. All because of a
pile of poop. Let's start not too far in the past.
In two thousand fourteen, Secretary of State John Kerry and
the Obama administration decided to expand the Pacific Remote Islands
Marine National Monument from eighty six thousand, eight hundred eighty
eight square miles to those four hundred ninety thousand square
(11:05):
miles we mentioned earlier. With that expansion, commercial fishing, drilling,
and other disruptive activities were banned in what became the
world's largest marine sanctuary. But where did the United States
get the authority to protect those islands and their surrounding
waters bird poop? More specifically, the authority came from the
Guano Islands Act of eighteen fifty six, which basically says
(11:28):
that if a U. S citizen finds a pile of
guano on any rock, island or key, and that location
isn't already under possession of a government, you can consider
it as quote unquote appertaining to the United States. We'll
get to the appertaining bit later. The guandal law didn't
get on the books as a joke. It was a
real crisis that caused lawmakers to take deposits of bird
(11:49):
do seriously. In the early nineteenth century, sea bird droppings
were all the craze and farming fertilizer. Thanks to those
droppings being super rich in phosphorus and nitrogen. U S
farmers really wanted to get their hands on the staff
and the Peruvians, which had controlled the market, we're running
out of it. So u S lawmakers created this nebulous
act that says, should you find guana on any unclaimed land,
(12:11):
the United States can decide it's theirs for the taking.
But the law doesn't say what appertaining really means. It
doesn't mean the guana rich unclaimed land becomes part of
the US exactly. It just means that the US can
use these islands or keys or rocks for collecting guana
and then they can get the heck out. So what
some argue is one of the earliest legal structures of
(12:32):
American imperialism appears to be based on excrement. The guana
law is still on the books today. Five of the
islands included in the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument
where the United States to protect only because the country
was desperate for the bird poop on them and created
a rather shady way to get at it. In total,
about seventy islands were claimed based on the law, and
(12:54):
while most of the islands remain formally unincorporated, Palmyra is
technically an unorganized incore braided territory, meaning well not much.
Both the Nature Conservacy and the US Fish and Wildlife
Service are now stewards of the Palmyra Addle and the
guano craze. It didn't last forever. By the twentieth century,
synthetic fertilizers had become the solution and perhaps problem, of
(13:16):
the fuching. That's our show for this week. Thank you
so much for tuning in for the Thanks to our
audio producer Dylan Fagan and our editorial liaison Alison louder Milk.
Subscribe to now Now for more of the latest science
news and sentence links to anything you'd like to hear
his cover plus. Do you have any science or culture
(13:36):
questions that you can't find an answer to, Let us know.
Answering the unanswerable is sort of our business. As always,
You can send us an email at now podcast at
how stuff works dot com, and for lots more stories
like these, head on over to our home planet Now
dot how stuff works dot com.
Welcome to hows To Works Now. I'm your host Lauren Vogelbam,
a researcher and writer here at How Stuff Works. Every week,
I'm bringing you three stories from our team about the
weird and wondrous advances we've seen in science, technology, and culture.
This week. You can get pregnant when you're already pregnant
and unrelated. There was a time not all that long
(00:23):
ago when farmers went absolutely mad for bird poop. But
first staff editor Christopher Hasiotis and our freelance writer Patrick
Jake Haiger explore a question when we were curious about
when and why did America start calling its citizens consumers.
(00:44):
It's hard to say exactly when it started, but in
the United States there seems to be an increasing tendency
to use the term consumer interchangeably with citizen, even when
the discussion isn't taking place strictly in an economic framework,
and some political experts say that the choice of words
may reveal as subtle, but were some shift in how
we see ourselves and our role in American society away
(01:04):
from the notion of working together with others towards the
common good and toward a nation of individuals primarily motivated
by self interest. Dr Jason Sadowski, an economist and lecturer,
wrote the two thousand fifteen article stopped Treating Citizens as consumers.
He says that using consumer interchangeably with citizen has become
part of our default discourse, the normal way we view
(01:26):
society and people just look at the recent presidential election,
he says. This consumer versus citizen language is often used
to when analyst and pundits talk about elections. Voters are
just consumers with preferences, and the election is a marketplace
of products to choose from in the store. We vote
with our dollar, and we're told that elections are functionally
the same thing. You just use a ballot instead of
(01:46):
a buck to cast your vote. This understanding of democratic
processes as a marketplace is just one more place where
the citizen is overtaken by the consumer. Taking a broader view,
both words have been around for centuries. The words citizen
dates back to the thirteen hundreds that it originally meant
the inhabitant of a city and didn't take on its
present meaning a person who has rights and responsibilities in
(02:07):
a society until around the year sixteen ten. The word consumer,
on the other hand arose in the fourteen hundreds. The
back then it meant someone who squandered or waste things,
and it took on a less pejorative economic meaning person
who uses goods and services and does the opposite as
someone who's a producer around seventy five. Michael Munger, the
(02:28):
director of the Philosophy of Politics and Economics program at
Duke University's Political Science Department, notes that the word consumer
seldom appeared in print until about the year nineteen hundred,
but starting around then it steadily rose until it passed
up citizen in frequency in the late nineteen fifties, and
these days the word consumer shows up about three times
as often as citizen. Munger theorizes that the shift in
(02:49):
usage had to do with a rise in the twentieth
century of progressive politics. The progressives primarily saw citizens as
being helpless trapped by large forces, he says, especially corporations.
The New Deal social programs devised by Franklin Roosevelt in
the nineteen thirties and Lyndon Johnson's Great Society Effort of
the nineteen sixties, amonger argues, reinforce the idea that participation
(03:10):
in politics was mostly a way of getting your share
of consumption. Politicians increasing use in the nineteen sixties of
sophisticated marketing techniques borrowed from sellers of products breakfast, seal cars, anties,
persperants may also have played a role. Today, campaigns gather
and analyze mountains of data to conduct micro targeting efforts,
which look at individual voters attitudes and behaviors and what
(03:32):
might best be the way to reach them. And government
itself has been judged as if it were consumer business.
The American Customer Satisfaction Indexed, for instance, even rates the
federal government on how people feel about their interactions with
it if you're wandering by the way. It got a
sixty eight percent positive rating in two thousand sixteen, up
from sixty three point nine percent the previous year. So
(03:52):
consumer citizen, This isn't just semantics. The words we use
can have an impact on how we live. A two
thousand twelve study in the journal Psychological Science found that
the choice of words may exert a subtle influence upon
how we see ourselves. In one part of the study,
people who answered a consumer response survey tended to express
more materialistic, self centered values than those who answered a
(04:14):
Citizens Survey. In another part of the study, researchers presented
subjects with hypothetical situations in which people had to share
water from a well and labeled them as either consumers
or citizens. Subjects who got the consumer identity tended to
distrust others more about water sharing, felt less in partnership
with other subjects, and felt less personally responsible compared to
(04:35):
those who were labeled citizens. To the extent that the
role of citizen and consumers merging today, it seems to
underscore a shift away from viewing Americans as having responsibility
in our political system and toward a more individualistic idea
of what it means to be the American, says Josh Paysek,
an assistant professor of Communication studies at the University of Michigan.
(04:55):
He says, your job as an American citizen requires that
you fulfill key democra addic norms such as being informed,
deliberating about political issues, and participating in civic and political life.
As an American consumer, though your actions are relevant only
to the extent that they respond to economic incentives, the
responsibility to be engaged and participatory is not your own,
(05:17):
but instead depends on a system oriented to bring you in.
Frank Trentman, a professor of history at the University of
London an author of the book Empire of Things, How
we became a world of Consumers from the fifteenth century
to the twenty one, thinks the blurred distinction between consumer
and citizen may make it tougher for people to come
together to solve problems. He says, not all consumers see
(05:39):
the world in the same way, and hence concerted action
is difficult. That's why some would like to see us
go back to seeing ourselves differently. As political commentator Mark
Shields wrote in two thousand twelve, maybe it's time that
Americans started insisting that leaders treat them not like consumers,
but as citizens who recognize that we have, in addition
to rites and privileges, real obligations and responsibilities. Next up,
(06:06):
senior editor Katherine Whitbourne and our freelance writer Alia Howitt
bring us a story that goes against what most of
us learned in biology class. It's possible, though rare, to
get pregnant a second time while you're already pregnant. Finding
out you're carrying two or more babies at once can
be a pretty huge shock. Under normal circumstances. Now, imagine
(06:28):
you're one of the very few pregnancies involving multiple fetuses
of different ages of gestation at the same time. Someone's
got splanning to do. That's right, It's possible, although, and
we really must stress this extremely rare, to conceive a
child while already pregnant. The phenomenon is known in medical
circles as superfetation and involves two eggs, two different sperm,
(06:50):
and two different conception timeframes. This is different from something
called super fecundation, which is when a woman releases two
eggs in the same time period, each of which is
fertilized by the sperm of a different man. Only about
ten human cases of superfetation have been investigated, so it's
hard to put a firm time frame on just what
constitutes separate ages of gestation, but suspected superfetation does require
(07:15):
two separate ovulation incidences, one of them after an initial
pregnancy has already occurred. The human body is designed to
prevent superfetation from even being an issue. Once pregnant, a
woman's reproductive system isn't supposed to continue sending out eggs.
In fact, she's not supposed to avolate more than once
per cycle. Multiple ovulations can happen in the same cycle,
(07:36):
but that's when two eggs are released within the same
twenty four hour period, potentially resulting in the conception of
fraternal twins. Doctor Robert Atlas is the chair of the
Department of Astetrics and Gynecology and Mercy Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland.
He says that the presence of cervical mucus, which begins
to block the cervix almost immediately after conception, is typically
a major hindrance for follow up sperm. He says, you
(07:59):
only have two for maybe thirty six hours when the
cervical mucus is thin, where the sperm can penetrate and
get into the uterus. Although it's rare in humans, superfetation
is common certain animals like cats, panthers, and badgers. Some
animals even have multiple uterus is to accommodate the phenomenon.
That's not the only way in which human pregnancies are
different from other animals. We don't usually carry multiples, and
(08:20):
when we do, they're considered high risk. During his twenty
five years in practice, doctor Atlas has never encountered superfetation
in action, nor is he likely to, but if he did,
he'd probably draw the conclusion after considering more likely possibilities.
During a woman's ultrasound, you can measure the chron rump
length of her fetus. That's the length from the top
of its head the crown to the bottom of its
(08:42):
products the rump, and it's used to determine a baby's
gestational age. If there's a length difference between two babies,
a doctor would be more likely to think the smaller
one might have a potential abnormality, rather than this being
a case of superfetation. Some experts are skeptical as to
whether human superfetation is even nothing in the first place.
Doctor Jimbotoni, maternal fetal medicine expert, says that most of
(09:06):
the alleged cases of human superfetation are really cases of
twin fetuses of the same age with on equal development. Fortunately,
in cases of suspected superfetation, both babies have thrived. Once
doctors recognized that one of the babies might be born
prematurely and take the right precautions, things seemed to turn
out back. Finally. This week, Managing editor Alison Loudermilk and
(09:34):
our freelancer kay Kirshner delve into a bit of seemingly
ridiculous history. Bird poop was once so valuable that the
United States passed a law claiming possession of all bird
poops that fell on unclaimed land. Let's travel to the
Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument. This immense monument spans
(09:57):
three hundred seventy thousand square nautical miles that converts to
four nine thousand square miles. These protected islands and waters
stretch from Wake Addle in the northwest to Jarvis Island
in the southeast. Within this cluster of small islands, you
might find the sooty turn nesting in Jarvis Island, the
wandering tattler browsing around Palmyra Addle, and brown boobies roosting
(10:21):
on Kingman Reef. All of those birds mean you're going
to encounter something else, bird droppings. Brace yourself for a
little history lesson that just might make you take a
real interest in what islands have birds and thus bird droppings.
The lesson will be particularly useful if you're interested in
claiming an imperialist stake in deserted islands and declaring them
(10:43):
under vague, if legal American ownership. All because of a
pile of poop. Let's start not too far in the past.
In two thousand fourteen, Secretary of State John Kerry and
the Obama administration decided to expand the Pacific Remote Islands
Marine National Monument from eighty six thousand, eight hundred eighty
eight square miles to those four hundred ninety thousand square
(11:05):
miles we mentioned earlier. With that expansion, commercial fishing, drilling,
and other disruptive activities were banned in what became the
world's largest marine sanctuary. But where did the United States
get the authority to protect those islands and their surrounding
waters bird poop? More specifically, the authority came from the
Guano Islands Act of eighteen fifty six, which basically says
(11:28):
that if a U. S citizen finds a pile of
guano on any rock, island or key, and that location
isn't already under possession of a government, you can consider
it as quote unquote appertaining to the United States. We'll
get to the appertaining bit later. The guandal law didn't
get on the books as a joke. It was a
real crisis that caused lawmakers to take deposits of bird
(11:49):
do seriously. In the early nineteenth century, sea bird droppings
were all the craze and farming fertilizer. Thanks to those
droppings being super rich in phosphorus and nitrogen. U S
farmers really wanted to get their hands on the staff
and the Peruvians, which had controlled the market, we're running
out of it. So u S lawmakers created this nebulous
act that says, should you find guana on any unclaimed land,
(12:11):
the United States can decide it's theirs for the taking.
But the law doesn't say what appertaining really means. It
doesn't mean the guana rich unclaimed land becomes part of
the US exactly. It just means that the US can
use these islands or keys or rocks for collecting guana
and then they can get the heck out. So what
some argue is one of the earliest legal structures of
(12:32):
American imperialism appears to be based on excrement. The guana
law is still on the books today. Five of the
islands included in the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument
where the United States to protect only because the country
was desperate for the bird poop on them and created
a rather shady way to get at it. In total,
about seventy islands were claimed based on the law, and
(12:54):
while most of the islands remain formally unincorporated, Palmyra is
technically an unorganized incore braided territory, meaning well not much.
Both the Nature Conservacy and the US Fish and Wildlife
Service are now stewards of the Palmyra Addle and the
guano craze. It didn't last forever. By the twentieth century,
synthetic fertilizers had become the solution and perhaps problem, of
(13:16):
the fuching. That's our show for this week. Thank you
so much for tuning in for the Thanks to our
audio producer Dylan Fagan and our editorial liaison Alison louder Milk.
Subscribe to now Now for more of the latest science
news and sentence links to anything you'd like to hear
his cover plus. Do you have any science or culture
(13:36):
questions that you can't find an answer to, Let us know.
Answering the unanswerable is sort of our business. As always,
You can send us an email at now podcast at
how stuff works dot com, and for lots more stories
like these, head on over to our home planet Now
dot how stuff works dot com.
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