July 27, 2025 • 34 mins
Dive into the lives and achievements of doctors who made history in their field. Journey from the inception of the prestigious Edinburgh School of Medicine, through William Harveys revolutionary work on blood circulation, to the advancements in surgery and Edward Jenners pivotal role in creating vaccines. This is Volume 1 of a two-part series.
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Speaker 1 (00:00):
Section nine of Eminent Doctors Their Lives and their Work
Volume one. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings
are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer,
please visit LibriVox dot org. Eminent Doctors their Lives in
their Work Volume one by George Thomas Betteny, Sir Astley
(00:25):
Cooper and Abernathy The Knife Versus Regimen Part one. Few
men have been more renowned in their day than the
Great Sir Astley. Astley Cooper was the grandson of a
surgeon at Norwich. His father was a very estimable clergyman
in Norfolk. His mother wrote novels of some repute and
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was noted for her benevolence and unselfishness. Astley, the fourth
son of a numerous family, was born on August twenty third,
seventeen sixty eight. His youth was marked by a succession
of here breadth, escapes and exploits, demanding coolness and audacity.
He had no great taste for classics or literature in
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youth or through life. As a youth he had a
handsome and expressive countenance, with much openness of manner and
liveliness of conversation, so that he often charmed those who
disapproved of his wild freaks. Like John Hunter, he had
a free youth, and if unimproved, was likewise unspoiled by
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systematic training. Both the grandfather and the uncle of Astley Cooper,
the latter electurer at Guise, are credited with some share
in exciting a surgical bias in the boy's mind. Visiting
the Norblech Hospital one day and seeing a striking operation,
he was strongly impressed with the utility of surgery. In
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seventeen eighty four, a visit from his uncle, the London surgeon,
led to the net being article to him, but his
progress here was limited owing to the attraction which a
free town life had for him.
Speaker 2 (02:08):
At first.
Speaker 1 (02:09):
One day he was met by his uncle disguised in
the uniform of an officer, and the former recognizing his nephew,
the latter denied.
Speaker 2 (02:18):
All knowledge of him.
Speaker 1 (02:20):
The detection of this escapade was soon followed by his
transfer as a pupil from his uncle to Miss Decline,
who then shared with Abernathy the next honors as surgeon
to John Hunter. Undercline, young Cooper imbibed the spirit of
Hunter's teaching for one of his most enthusiastic pupils. The
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client's judgment about Hunter was that there seemed no comparison
between his great mind and all who had preceded him.
Speaker 2 (02:49):
Sir A.
Speaker 1 (02:49):
Sley Cooper at a later period thus depicts his old master.
Mister Cline was a man of excellent judgment, of great caution,
of accurate knowledge, particularly taciturn abroad, yet open, friendly and
very conversationable at home in surgery, cool, safe, judicious an anatomy,
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sufficiently informed in politics, a democrat living in friendship with
Horn took in morals, thoroughly honest in religion, a deist,
a good husband, son and father as a friend, sincere,
but not active as an enemy. Most inveterate. Young Cooper
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was soon actively engaged in dissection, and his adventurous nature
found scope in many a night expedition with the body
snatures a resurrectionists in their search for subjects. He spent
one winter session seventeen eighty seven to eight at Edinburgh,
having already made considerable progress in anatomy and surgery. He
(03:54):
greatly appreciated culin Black and Fife. Having returned from Edinburgh,
he attended John Hunter and other celebrated lecturers, and in
seventeen eighty nine, being only twenty one, he was appointed
demonstrator at Saint Thomas's. Two years later, mister Kline obtained
for him the joint lectureship with himself in anatomy and surgery.
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In December seventeen ninety one he married miss Anne Clock.
The wedding was perfectly quiet, owing to the recent death
of the lady's father, and on the evening of the
same day Astley Cooper lectured on surgery with his usual composure,
without any of his pupils becoming aware of his marriage.
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In June seventeen ninety two, the young surgeon and his
pride visited Paris, and with there during the three terrible
months which followed, Cooper spent much time in studying Parisian
methods of surgery and in attending the debates of the
National Assembly. His safety was secured by a democratic badge,
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by friendship with leading revolutionists in England and whom climb
ad Yard. In addition to his income from his hospital lectures,
mister Cooper came into possession by his marriage of a
fortune of fourteen thousand pounds, so that he was at
once placed beyond any pecuniary anxiety. He consequently was enabled
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to devote himself mainly to study and teaching. He went
to the hospital before breakfast to dissectful lecture, and he
also demonstrated to students before the lecture hour he injected
their subjects. Lectured from two till half past three, and
three evenings a week lectured on surgery. Further, he persevered
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in visiting the interesting cases in the hospital and making
notes of them. His lectures on surgery, which he was
the first in the Borough hospitals to separate from anatomy
and physiology, were not at the beginning a conspicuous success.
He found that he had been to theore, but soon
changed his plan and selected cases in the hospital as
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the basis of his lectures. From this moment his class
increased and became interested. He himself acquired a facility in
recalling cases and circumstances illustrative of the disease under consideration,
which greatly added to the attractiveness of his style. The
fact is he was not the intellectual successor of John
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Hunter and could not succeed by similar methods. Yet the
influence of Hunter upon him was unmixedly beneficial. He had
the wit to perceive that Hunter was not an imaginative speculator,
and anyone who believed in him a blockhead and a
black sheep in the profession. The improved lectures on surgery
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attracted twice as many entries in seventeen ninety three as
in seventeen ninety two, and mister Cooper was besides selected
as lecture on anatomy at the College of Surgeons. A
chief part of his duties in this latter capacity was
to lecture on and to set the bodies of executed criminals.
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The lectures were most successfully given to crowded audiences. In
seventeen ninety seven, the now viasing surgeon removed from his
early residence in Jeffrey Square Saint Mary Acts to twelve
Saint Mary Acts, long occupied by mister Cline, who now
moved westward. In the next year, he had a severe accident,
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being thrown from his horse on his head, and his
life was in considerable danger for some time. The extent
of Miss Decline's consolatory sympathy when Copper was lamenting the
risk to his life because of its interference with some
professional inquiry likely to be of public benefit, was thus expressed,
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make yourself quite easy, my friend. The result of your disorder,
whether fatal or otherwise, will not be thought of the
lane least consequence by mankind. An early pupil, doctor William Roots, however,
gives a very different account of Cooper's consequence to mankind.
From the period of Astley's appointment to guise until the
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moment of his latest breath, he was everything in all
to the suffering and afflicted. His name was a host,
but his presence brought confidence and comfort. And I have
often observed that on an operating day, should anything occur
of an untold character in the theater, the moment as.
Speaker 2 (08:33):
The Cooper entered an instrument.
Speaker 1 (08:36):
Was in his hand, every difficulty was overcome, and safety
generally consued. No doubt references he had made to the
fact recorded by Sir Astley himself as follows. I was
always of opinion that mister Cline and I gained more
reputation at the hospitals by assisting our colleagues than by
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our own operations, for they were always in scrapes, and
we were obliged to help them out of them. Mister Travis,
who became asked the Cooper's articled pupil in eighteen hundred
says at that time he was the handsomest, most intelligent, looking,
and finely formed man he ever saw. According to the
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custom of his time, he his hair powdered with a
jew and had always a glow of color in his cheeks.
In his daily riot, he wore a blue coat and
yellow buckskin breeches and top boots. He was remarkably upright
and moved with grace, vigor, and elasticity, and would not
unfrequently throw his well shaped leg upon the table at
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a lecture to illustrate some injury or operation on the
lower extremity. Cheerfulness of temper amounting to vivacity, and a
relish for the ludicrous never deserted him, and his chuckling
laugh scarce smothered well. He told his story. His mirthful
look and manner, and his punning habit were well known.
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His personal habits were very simple. He drank water at
dinner and took two glasses aboard after a good Digestion
never forsook him, as he said he could digest anything
but sawdust. He was remarkable for requiring little amusement or
company beyond what he found in his professional pursuits, and
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he read comparatively little medical literature. It is often been
alleged that Astley Cooper was somewhat unfeeling in nature, and
it must be admitted that he had not a deep
sympathy with bodily pain, for his own insusceptibility was equalled
by his physical endurance. Yet he always sympathized deeply with
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mental suffering, and mister Travis, who saw him read a
posthumous letter from a favored pupil who had committed suicide,
relates that his utterance was choked with sobs, and he
wept as for the loss of an only child. That
his affection was not rep drifted to his own immediate
family is shown by the fact that on the deeply
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regretted death of his little daughter, he adopted into his
family a little girl who was no relative, but whose
mother died early, and subsequently he himself brought from Yarmouth
in the coach, a twenty four hours journey his little nephew,
Astley than two years old, who subsequently became his successor
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in the baronetcy, more widely known than the nephew during
sure Astley's life was his servant, Charles Osbaldiston, a name
which in practice softened down into Baldison. He was keenly
alive to his master's interest, and had much tact and
disposition for maneuver. He boasted that in twenty six years
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he never lost a patience for his master, whom it
was possible to retain. Wherever mister Cooper was, Charles would
start after him, if urgently required, and at any cost
of post choice's, track him out and bring him triumphantly
to the foe. Mister Cooper, in his earlier years, when
Anatomy formed a great part of his work, was of
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necessity largely concerned with the resurrectionists, and was one of
the main supporters. It may be equally conceited of their practices,
the details of which he was not unfrequently made acquainted with.
Speaker 2 (12:23):
But the state of the law, which almost.
Speaker 1 (12:25):
Made it impossible to gain possession of subjects for dissection legally,
must be accepted as the apology for much that would
now as then be regarded as shocking. It cannot be
stricted Germaine to Sir Astley Cooper's life. To describe the
procedure of the body snatchers, as mister Brandsby Cooper has done.
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But it may be remarked that on occasions when public
notice was threatened, Asley Cooper took prompt steps to obvied
injurious publicity of his name. For a time, the men
of ill Vain reigned, exacting almost what prices they chose.
If any dumur was made, they stopped the supplies, And
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then the medical students became angry, held indignation meetings, sent
deputations to their teachers, sometimes asserting that their lecturers were
not as active or as liberal as those of some
rival school, and threatening to leave en mouse. Thus the
lecturers were, in a manner forced to pay more for
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their subjects than they could receive when their pupils were
dissecting them. Another disagreeable consequence was that when the regular
resurrectionists got into trouble, the surgeons had to make great
exertions in their behalf, and often advanced large sums to
defend them or to keep them in their families during imprisonment.
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So s the Cooper spent hundreds of pounds in this way.
One of his accounts included fourteen pounds seven shillings for
half the expenses of going down and fling Vaughn at Yarmouth.
Thirteen pounds were Vaughan's support during twenty six weeks imprisonment,
fifty pounds eight shillings for four subjects paid to Murphy,
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and six guineas finishing money to three men a du
serve at the end of a session. The high prices
paid led some people to offer their bodies before death,
but of course this was illegal. Sir Astley's brief answer
to one offer from a third party asking to know
the truth, was the truth is that you deserve to
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be hanged for making such an unfeeling offer. But under
other circumstances, when the obtaining of the corpse of a
person who had died after an operation interesting to the
surgeon was in question, Sir Astley paid large sums and
was thus enabled to add many valuable specimens of surgical
results to his museum. Thus, his accounts for eighteen twenty
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shaill The following entries in regard to obtaining the box
of a man on whom he had operated twenty four
years before. Coach were two there and back three pounds
twelve shillings, guards and coachmen six shillings expenses for two
days one pound fourteen shillings sixpence, carriage of subject and
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poeta twelve shillings sixpence subject seven pounds seven shillings total
thirteen pounds twelve shillings. The subject was to be obtained,
we read cost what it may. It is no wonder
then that of Sir Astley. It might be said that
no man knew so much of the habits, the crimes,
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and the few good qualities of the resurrectionists. He could
obtain any subject he pleased, however guarded, and indeed offered
to do so. No one could go further than he
did before Committee the House of Commons, to whom he
plainly avowed, there is no person, let his situation in
life be what it whom if I were disposed to
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dissect I could not obtain. The law only enhances the
price and does not prevent the exhumation. At Last, the
dreadful disclosures about the practices of burking in Edinburgh in
eighteen twenty nine led to the passing of the Anatomy Act,
legalizing to section under proper regulations. Nor were human bodies
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the only ones laid onto Contribution by Astley Cooper what
animals were wanted for some physiological illustration or investigation, his
man Charles could always procure them, and he had at
one time as many as thirty dogs besides other animals
shut up in the hay loft. Half a crown apiece
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was paid by Charles on receipt of the dogs, however obtained,
and no doubt dog stealing was one source. The menagerie
at the tower was to mister Cooper, as it had
been to John Hunter, a considerable resource with specimens for dissection.
In eighteen o one, an enormous elephant came under his knife, and,
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being too unwillingly to be got into the dissecting room,
it had to be cut up in the courtyard, where,
assisted by several students, mister Cooper gave himself no risk
till all the interesting parts were preserved and deposited in
Saint Thomas's museum. Bird Stuffers, fishmongers and poultry merchants were
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also among the sources of supply for his unwearying knife.
To ask the Cooper, as to most men who rise
to eminence, remunerative practice came, but slowly. My receipt says
he for the first year was five pounds five shillings,
the second twenty six pounds, the third fifty four pounds,
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the fourth ninety six pounds, the fifth one hundred pounds,
the sixth two hundred pounds, the seventh four hundred pounds,
the eighth six hundred ten pounds, the ninth, the year
in which he was appointed surgeon to the hospital, eleven
hundred pounds. This was in eighteen hundred, when his uncle
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William Cooper resigned the surgency. It might have been supposed
that the uncle would favor his nephew's succession in every
way possible, but he rather supported mister Morris, the strongest
competitor for the rising star, made the elder jealous of
his brilliancy, and moreover always regarded Leine at Saint Thomas's
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as his uncle superior. Thus Astley Cooper's success was by
no means certain, as his political associations with horn Took
and thie Wall were strenuously alleged against him. But Astley,
ever preferring success to politics, resolved on giving up the
letter and on being neutral for the future at any
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rate as to all open proceedings. This resolve secured his
appointment by mister Harrison, the well known Church of Guise, who,
with Sir Astley, she is the highest credit in the
establishment of its medical school. He now absented himself from
mister Cline's political parties, and always advised young surgeons not
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to attach themselves to particular parties as they do, these
must extend to persons of all views. He also to
leave no stone unturned personally canvassed each of the seventy
two governors. In eighteen hundred, Astley made his first communication
to the Royal Society on the effects of destruction of
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the tympanic membrane of the ear. He had found that
considerable openings might be made in the membrane without impairing
the hearing power. He consequently applied this operation to certain
kinds of deafness resulting from disease or obstruction in the
Eustachian tube, and in eighteen o one sent in another
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paper detailing the results of twenty cases. Although oh his
success in restoring lost hearing was much less than he
had anticipated, the operation has since been frequently performed, and
the Royal Society eighteen o two awarded him the Cockly
Medal for these papers. In the same year he was
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elected f R s Asthley. Grouper's activities were at this
time strongly directed towards the improvement of his profession, by
intercourse and discussion at societies of several of which he
was the life and soul. The Physical Society at Guy's
Hospital afforded his earliest opportunity of this kind, and long
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retained his active interest. During his short stay at Edinburgh,
his predominance was so evident that he was chosen president
of a society to protect students' rights against usurpations by
the professors. Here also he joined a speculative society and
read a paper in favor of the Berkeoleean of matter.
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One of the debates which he opened on the subject
is man a free agent. He would have been a
president of the Royal Medical Society at Edinburgh had he
returned for a second winter, so much did he distinguish
himself in debate. At a later period, the strength of
his association with Edinburgh was attested by his forming the
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Edinburgh Club in London for former Edinburgh medical students.
Speaker 2 (21:27):
The most important.
Speaker 1 (21:28):
Society, however, with the foundation of which he was connected,
was the Royal Medical Trilurgical Society, which originated in a
secession for the Medical Society of London. Doki Yelliley, who
was intimately connected with the new foundation, says of mister Cooper.
At this time I never saw any one more open
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hearted as a companion, more unreserved in his remarks, with
always a large store of information at his command, and
who was at the same time more kindly despite and
abounding in all sorts of material for the gratification of
those with whom he associated. He was not a reading man,
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but he contrived to get the most valuable information of
every description, whether professional or general, and always to use
it in the best, the most attractive, and the readiest way.
The treasurer of the Society was Astley Cooper, and he
rendered essential service. The earliest volume of its Transactions, published
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in eighteen o nine, contained a paper recording his first
operation for the relief of anneurism of the carotid artery
by tying up below the anneurism, a method now established.
But he had previously published Part one in eighteen o
four Part two in eighteen o seven, a work which
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largely contributed to his reputation, namely on her Near or Rupture.
A second edition was published in eighteen twenty seven. The
anatomical structures concerned were excellently expounded and illustrated, and the
experience gained. Infrequently and successfully operating in cases of this
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disease gave mister Cooper a possession of the highest authority,
as so often happens to medical men. His attention was
especially called to this disease from the fact that he
had been subject to it from early life. The anatomical
study he undertook in order to perfect his knowledge of
this matter was immense. I have related no case, he says,
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and given no remark, but the truth of which I
cannot vouch. When his pupils showed him some interesting appearance
in a dissection, he would say, that is the way, sir,
to learn the profession. Look for yourself. Never mind what
other people may say. No opinion or theories can interfere
with information derived from dissection. The expense of the illustrations
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to this work was so great that mister Cooper was
loser of a thousand pounds by it when every copy
had been sold. In eighteen o six, mister Cooper left
Saint Mary Axe to occupy the house in New broad Street,
which for nine years was crowded by his patients during
the most remunerative years of his life. In those years,
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he rose at six, dissected privately till eight, and from
half past eight saw large numbers a gratitude of his patients.
At breakfast, he ate only two well bettered hot rolls,
drank his tea cool at a draft, read his paper
a few minutes, and then was off to his consulting room,
turning round with a sweet, benign smile as he left
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the room. Patients crowded his rooms and besieged Charles, using
manifold devices to get the earliest interview possible. At one
o'clock he would scarcely see another patient, even if the
house was full, but if detained half an hour later,
would fly into a rage, abuse Charles and jump into
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his carriage, leaving Charles to appease the disappointed patients. Sometimes
the people in the hall and anteroom were so importunate
that mister Cooper was driven to escape through his stables
into a passage by Bishop's Gate Church. At Guy's he
was awaited by a crowd of pupils on the steps,
and at once went into the wards, addressing the patients
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with such tenderness of voice and expression that he at
once gained their confidence. His few pertinent questions and quick
diagnosis were of themselves remarkable, no less than the judicious,
calm manner in which he enforced the necessity for operations
when required. At two, the pupils would suddenly leave the ward,
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run across the street to the Old Saint Thomas's Hospital,
and seat themselves in the anatomical theater. After the lecture,
which was often so crowded that men stood in the
gangways and passages near to gain such portions of his
lecture as they might fortunately pick up, he went round
the dissecting room, and afterwards left the hospital to visit
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patients or to operate privately, Returning home at half past
six or seven, every spear minute in his carriage was
occupied with dictating to his assistance notes of remarks on
cases or other subjects on which he was engaged. At dinner,
he ate rapidly and not very elegantly, talking and joking.
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After dinner he slept for ten minutes at will, and
then started to his surgical lecture. If it were a
lecture night. In the evening he was usually again on
a round of visits till midnight. Doctor Pettigrew, in his
Medical Portrait Gallery thus vividly describes the overpowering influence Sir
Astley had upon his pupils. I can never forget the
(27:00):
enthusiasm with which he entered upon the performance of any
duty calculated to a bridge human suffering. This enthusiasm, by
the generosity of his character, his familiar manner, and the
excellence of his temper he imparted to all around him,
and the extent of the obligations of the present and
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of after ages to Sir Astley Cooper is thus forming
able and spirited surgeons can never be accurately estimated. He
was the idol of the Borough School. The pupils followed
him in troops, And like Tulanaeus, who has been described
as proceeding upon his botanical excursions accompanied by hundreds of students,
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so may Sir Astley be depicted traversing the wards of
the hospital with an equal number of pupils, listening with
almost breathless anxiety to catch the observations which fell from
his lips. But on the days of operation, and this
feeling was wound up to the highest pitch, the sight
was altogether deeply interesting, the large theater of guise, crowded
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to the ceiling, the profound silence obtained upon his entry,
that person so manly and so truly imposing, and the
awful feeling connected with the occasion, can never be forgotten
by any of his pupils. The elegance of his operation
without the slightest affectation, all ease, all kindness to the patience,
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and equally solicitous, that nothing should be hidden from the
observation of the pupils. Rapid in execution, masterly in manner,
no hurry, no disorder, the most trifling minutia attended to
the dressings generally applied by his own hand. The light
and elegant manner in which Sir Astley employed his various
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instruments always astonished me, and I could not refrain from
making some remarks upon it to my late master, mister Chandler,
one of the surgeons to Saint Thomas's Hospital. I observed
to him as Sir Astley's operations appeared like the graceful
efforts of an artist in making a drawing. Mister c replied, Sir,
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it is of no consequence what instrument mister Cooper uses
they all alike to him, and I verily believe he
could operate as easily with an oyster knife as the
best bit of cutlery and lawnder shop. There was great
truth in this observation. Sir Astley was at that time
decidedly one of the first operators of the day, and
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this must be taken in its widest sense, for it
is intended to include the planning of the operation, the
precision and dexterity in the mode of its performance, and
the readiness with which all difficulties were met and overcome.
Mister Cooper, notwithstanding his persevering industry into section, would not.
Speaker 2 (29:56):
Have found time to acquire all the knowledge.
Speaker 1 (29:59):
He did but for employing several assistants, either to dissect
the specimens he obtained.
Speaker 2 (30:05):
For operations or from.
Speaker 1 (30:07):
Post mortem examinations, or as artists and modelers amanuenses, et cetera.
He was very peremptory in his orders to his assistance
to obtain for him any specimen he required, and would
not listen to suggestions of difficulties. So in soul must
be done, he said, and his tone did not admit
(30:28):
of the possibility of failure. Thus he accumulated the large
collection of morbid specimens which he contributed to Saint Thomas's Hospital,
at a time when such collections were poo pooed and
so little regarded, that he could readily obtain any specimen
he desired, which was at the disposal of his colleagues.
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With regard to his proceedings in these matters, the utmost
secrecy was observed, entrance to his private dissecting rooms being
jealously restricted to himself and his pace assistance. When it
was difficult to obtain leave to make a post mortem
examination in private practice, he was spent a long time
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and arguing most strenuously upon the matter, with the relatives
pointing out the reasons which rendered it desirable in the
interests of science. His only child was examined, by his
express wish by a friend, and he lebstrict injunctions and
directions for the postmortem on his own body. In very
few cases was his determination ever prostrated. Astley Cooper reached
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his zenith in Broad Street in one year. His income
reached twenty one thousand pounds. For many years it was
fifteen thousand pounds. One merchant prince paid him six hundred
pounds a year. The story of another who tossed him
a check for a thousand guineas in his night gap
after a successful operation for stone is well known. Many
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of his patients wrote a check for their fee when
they consulted him, and never made it less than five guineas.
It is amusing contrast with his reputation as a surgeon
and operator. The extremely limited pharmacopeia to which he trusted
give me. He would say, opium tartarized at timmany, sulfate
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of magnesia, calameel and bark, and I would ask for
little else, And from five or six formulie he gave
his poorer patience a constant stock of medicine. Mister Cooper
was appointed Professor of Comparative Anatomy at the Royal College
of Surgeons in eighteen thirteen, being the first appointment after
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Sir Everard Holm retired. He lectured during only two seasons
in eighteen fourteen eighteen fifteen. Not being deeply read in
his subject, he resolved to see what industry could do
and restricted himself to three or four hours sleep. Then
he might gain additional time for the dissection of animals.
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He also employed several assistants to dissect for him, and
the result was that his specimens came by coach loads
to each lecture. Mister Cliff remarks of one lecture, this
was an overpowering discourse and highly perfumed, the preparations being
chiefly recent and half dried and varnished. His lectures were
(33:21):
very successful, though he would have referred lecturing on surgery,
which was allotted to Abernathy. In the year last mentioned,
he resigned his professorship and also moved to New Street, West,
hoping thereby to diminish the fatigue occasion by the numerous
visits which he had to pay westward. In the following May,
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he signaled his skill by a celebrated operation attying the
aid order or principal artery of the body for aneurysm,
in a case in which life was in the extremest peril.
The ease with which he prepared for the operation, and
the masterly skill and success with which he completed it
without the aid of chloroform, be remembered excited admiration throughout
(34:07):
the profession who could best judge of the difficulties which
had to be overcome. The patient died of incurable disease,
but the success of the operation was undoubted. End of
Section nine
Section nine of Eminent Doctors Their Lives and their Work
Volume one. This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings
are in the public domain. For more information or to volunteer,
please visit LibriVox dot org. Eminent Doctors their Lives in
their Work Volume one by George Thomas Betteny, Sir Astley
(00:25):
Cooper and Abernathy The Knife Versus Regimen Part one. Few
men have been more renowned in their day than the
Great Sir Astley. Astley Cooper was the grandson of a
surgeon at Norwich. His father was a very estimable clergyman
in Norfolk. His mother wrote novels of some repute and
(00:47):
was noted for her benevolence and unselfishness. Astley, the fourth
son of a numerous family, was born on August twenty third,
seventeen sixty eight. His youth was marked by a succession
of here breadth, escapes and exploits, demanding coolness and audacity.
He had no great taste for classics or literature in
(01:10):
youth or through life. As a youth he had a
handsome and expressive countenance, with much openness of manner and
liveliness of conversation, so that he often charmed those who
disapproved of his wild freaks. Like John Hunter, he had
a free youth, and if unimproved, was likewise unspoiled by
(01:31):
systematic training. Both the grandfather and the uncle of Astley Cooper,
the latter electurer at Guise, are credited with some share
in exciting a surgical bias in the boy's mind. Visiting
the Norblech Hospital one day and seeing a striking operation,
he was strongly impressed with the utility of surgery. In
(01:54):
seventeen eighty four, a visit from his uncle, the London surgeon,
led to the net being article to him, but his
progress here was limited owing to the attraction which a
free town life had for him.
Speaker 2 (02:08):
At first.
Speaker 1 (02:09):
One day he was met by his uncle disguised in
the uniform of an officer, and the former recognizing his nephew,
the latter denied.
Speaker 2 (02:18):
All knowledge of him.
Speaker 1 (02:20):
The detection of this escapade was soon followed by his
transfer as a pupil from his uncle to Miss Decline,
who then shared with Abernathy the next honors as surgeon
to John Hunter. Undercline, young Cooper imbibed the spirit of
Hunter's teaching for one of his most enthusiastic pupils. The
(02:40):
client's judgment about Hunter was that there seemed no comparison
between his great mind and all who had preceded him.
Speaker 2 (02:49):
Sir A.
Speaker 1 (02:49):
Sley Cooper at a later period thus depicts his old master.
Mister Cline was a man of excellent judgment, of great caution,
of accurate knowledge, particularly taciturn abroad, yet open, friendly and
very conversationable at home in surgery, cool, safe, judicious an anatomy,
(03:11):
sufficiently informed in politics, a democrat living in friendship with
Horn took in morals, thoroughly honest in religion, a deist,
a good husband, son and father as a friend, sincere,
but not active as an enemy. Most inveterate. Young Cooper
(03:32):
was soon actively engaged in dissection, and his adventurous nature
found scope in many a night expedition with the body
snatures a resurrectionists in their search for subjects. He spent
one winter session seventeen eighty seven to eight at Edinburgh,
having already made considerable progress in anatomy and surgery. He
(03:54):
greatly appreciated culin Black and Fife. Having returned from Edinburgh,
he attended John Hunter and other celebrated lecturers, and in
seventeen eighty nine, being only twenty one, he was appointed
demonstrator at Saint Thomas's. Two years later, mister Kline obtained
for him the joint lectureship with himself in anatomy and surgery.
(04:18):
In December seventeen ninety one he married miss Anne Clock.
The wedding was perfectly quiet, owing to the recent death
of the lady's father, and on the evening of the
same day Astley Cooper lectured on surgery with his usual composure,
without any of his pupils becoming aware of his marriage.
(04:38):
In June seventeen ninety two, the young surgeon and his
pride visited Paris, and with there during the three terrible
months which followed, Cooper spent much time in studying Parisian
methods of surgery and in attending the debates of the
National Assembly. His safety was secured by a democratic badge,
(05:00):
by friendship with leading revolutionists in England and whom climb
ad Yard. In addition to his income from his hospital lectures,
mister Cooper came into possession by his marriage of a
fortune of fourteen thousand pounds, so that he was at
once placed beyond any pecuniary anxiety. He consequently was enabled
(05:21):
to devote himself mainly to study and teaching. He went
to the hospital before breakfast to dissectful lecture, and he
also demonstrated to students before the lecture hour he injected
their subjects. Lectured from two till half past three, and
three evenings a week lectured on surgery. Further, he persevered
(05:42):
in visiting the interesting cases in the hospital and making
notes of them. His lectures on surgery, which he was
the first in the Borough hospitals to separate from anatomy
and physiology, were not at the beginning a conspicuous success.
He found that he had been to theore, but soon
changed his plan and selected cases in the hospital as
(06:05):
the basis of his lectures. From this moment his class
increased and became interested. He himself acquired a facility in
recalling cases and circumstances illustrative of the disease under consideration,
which greatly added to the attractiveness of his style. The
fact is he was not the intellectual successor of John
(06:27):
Hunter and could not succeed by similar methods. Yet the
influence of Hunter upon him was unmixedly beneficial. He had
the wit to perceive that Hunter was not an imaginative speculator,
and anyone who believed in him a blockhead and a
black sheep in the profession. The improved lectures on surgery
(06:49):
attracted twice as many entries in seventeen ninety three as
in seventeen ninety two, and mister Cooper was besides selected
as lecture on anatomy at the College of Surgeons. A
chief part of his duties in this latter capacity was
to lecture on and to set the bodies of executed criminals.
(07:09):
The lectures were most successfully given to crowded audiences. In
seventeen ninety seven, the now viasing surgeon removed from his
early residence in Jeffrey Square Saint Mary Acts to twelve
Saint Mary Acts, long occupied by mister Cline, who now
moved westward. In the next year, he had a severe accident,
(07:32):
being thrown from his horse on his head, and his
life was in considerable danger for some time. The extent
of Miss Decline's consolatory sympathy when Copper was lamenting the
risk to his life because of its interference with some
professional inquiry likely to be of public benefit, was thus expressed,
(07:52):
make yourself quite easy, my friend. The result of your disorder,
whether fatal or otherwise, will not be thought of the
lane least consequence by mankind. An early pupil, doctor William Roots, however,
gives a very different account of Cooper's consequence to mankind.
From the period of Astley's appointment to guise until the
(08:14):
moment of his latest breath, he was everything in all
to the suffering and afflicted. His name was a host,
but his presence brought confidence and comfort. And I have
often observed that on an operating day, should anything occur
of an untold character in the theater, the moment as.
Speaker 2 (08:33):
The Cooper entered an instrument.
Speaker 1 (08:36):
Was in his hand, every difficulty was overcome, and safety
generally consued. No doubt references he had made to the
fact recorded by Sir Astley himself as follows. I was
always of opinion that mister Cline and I gained more
reputation at the hospitals by assisting our colleagues than by
(08:56):
our own operations, for they were always in scrapes, and
we were obliged to help them out of them. Mister Travis,
who became asked the Cooper's articled pupil in eighteen hundred
says at that time he was the handsomest, most intelligent, looking,
and finely formed man he ever saw. According to the
(09:17):
custom of his time, he his hair powdered with a
jew and had always a glow of color in his cheeks.
In his daily riot, he wore a blue coat and
yellow buckskin breeches and top boots. He was remarkably upright
and moved with grace, vigor, and elasticity, and would not
unfrequently throw his well shaped leg upon the table at
(09:39):
a lecture to illustrate some injury or operation on the
lower extremity. Cheerfulness of temper amounting to vivacity, and a
relish for the ludicrous never deserted him, and his chuckling
laugh scarce smothered well. He told his story. His mirthful
look and manner, and his punning habit were well known.
(10:01):
His personal habits were very simple. He drank water at
dinner and took two glasses aboard after a good Digestion
never forsook him, as he said he could digest anything
but sawdust. He was remarkable for requiring little amusement or
company beyond what he found in his professional pursuits, and
(10:23):
he read comparatively little medical literature. It is often been
alleged that Astley Cooper was somewhat unfeeling in nature, and
it must be admitted that he had not a deep
sympathy with bodily pain, for his own insusceptibility was equalled
by his physical endurance. Yet he always sympathized deeply with
(10:43):
mental suffering, and mister Travis, who saw him read a
posthumous letter from a favored pupil who had committed suicide,
relates that his utterance was choked with sobs, and he
wept as for the loss of an only child. That
his affection was not rep drifted to his own immediate
family is shown by the fact that on the deeply
(11:04):
regretted death of his little daughter, he adopted into his
family a little girl who was no relative, but whose
mother died early, and subsequently he himself brought from Yarmouth
in the coach, a twenty four hours journey his little nephew,
Astley than two years old, who subsequently became his successor
(11:24):
in the baronetcy, more widely known than the nephew during
sure Astley's life was his servant, Charles Osbaldiston, a name
which in practice softened down into Baldison. He was keenly
alive to his master's interest, and had much tact and
disposition for maneuver. He boasted that in twenty six years
(11:46):
he never lost a patience for his master, whom it
was possible to retain. Wherever mister Cooper was, Charles would
start after him, if urgently required, and at any cost
of post choice's, track him out and bring him triumphantly
to the foe. Mister Cooper, in his earlier years, when
Anatomy formed a great part of his work, was of
(12:09):
necessity largely concerned with the resurrectionists, and was one of
the main supporters. It may be equally conceited of their practices,
the details of which he was not unfrequently made acquainted with.
Speaker 2 (12:23):
But the state of the law, which almost.
Speaker 1 (12:25):
Made it impossible to gain possession of subjects for dissection legally,
must be accepted as the apology for much that would
now as then be regarded as shocking. It cannot be
stricted Germaine to Sir Astley Cooper's life. To describe the
procedure of the body snatchers, as mister Brandsby Cooper has done.
(12:46):
But it may be remarked that on occasions when public
notice was threatened, Asley Cooper took prompt steps to obvied
injurious publicity of his name. For a time, the men
of ill Vain reigned, exacting almost what prices they chose.
If any dumur was made, they stopped the supplies, And
(13:07):
then the medical students became angry, held indignation meetings, sent
deputations to their teachers, sometimes asserting that their lecturers were
not as active or as liberal as those of some
rival school, and threatening to leave en mouse. Thus the
lecturers were, in a manner forced to pay more for
(13:28):
their subjects than they could receive when their pupils were
dissecting them. Another disagreeable consequence was that when the regular
resurrectionists got into trouble, the surgeons had to make great
exertions in their behalf, and often advanced large sums to
defend them or to keep them in their families during imprisonment.
(13:49):
So s the Cooper spent hundreds of pounds in this way.
One of his accounts included fourteen pounds seven shillings for
half the expenses of going down and fling Vaughn at Yarmouth.
Thirteen pounds were Vaughan's support during twenty six weeks imprisonment,
fifty pounds eight shillings for four subjects paid to Murphy,
(14:11):
and six guineas finishing money to three men a du
serve at the end of a session. The high prices
paid led some people to offer their bodies before death,
but of course this was illegal. Sir Astley's brief answer
to one offer from a third party asking to know
the truth, was the truth is that you deserve to
(14:33):
be hanged for making such an unfeeling offer. But under
other circumstances, when the obtaining of the corpse of a
person who had died after an operation interesting to the
surgeon was in question, Sir Astley paid large sums and
was thus enabled to add many valuable specimens of surgical
results to his museum. Thus, his accounts for eighteen twenty
(14:56):
shaill The following entries in regard to obtaining the box
of a man on whom he had operated twenty four
years before. Coach were two there and back three pounds
twelve shillings, guards and coachmen six shillings expenses for two
days one pound fourteen shillings sixpence, carriage of subject and
(15:19):
poeta twelve shillings sixpence subject seven pounds seven shillings total
thirteen pounds twelve shillings. The subject was to be obtained,
we read cost what it may. It is no wonder
then that of Sir Astley. It might be said that
no man knew so much of the habits, the crimes,
(15:40):
and the few good qualities of the resurrectionists. He could
obtain any subject he pleased, however guarded, and indeed offered
to do so. No one could go further than he
did before Committee the House of Commons, to whom he
plainly avowed, there is no person, let his situation in
life be what it whom if I were disposed to
(16:02):
dissect I could not obtain. The law only enhances the
price and does not prevent the exhumation. At Last, the
dreadful disclosures about the practices of burking in Edinburgh in
eighteen twenty nine led to the passing of the Anatomy Act,
legalizing to section under proper regulations. Nor were human bodies
(16:25):
the only ones laid onto Contribution by Astley Cooper what
animals were wanted for some physiological illustration or investigation, his
man Charles could always procure them, and he had at
one time as many as thirty dogs besides other animals
shut up in the hay loft. Half a crown apiece
(16:46):
was paid by Charles on receipt of the dogs, however obtained,
and no doubt dog stealing was one source. The menagerie
at the tower was to mister Cooper, as it had
been to John Hunter, a considerable resource with specimens for dissection.
In eighteen o one, an enormous elephant came under his knife, and,
(17:06):
being too unwillingly to be got into the dissecting room,
it had to be cut up in the courtyard, where,
assisted by several students, mister Cooper gave himself no risk
till all the interesting parts were preserved and deposited in
Saint Thomas's museum. Bird Stuffers, fishmongers and poultry merchants were
(17:27):
also among the sources of supply for his unwearying knife.
To ask the Cooper, as to most men who rise
to eminence, remunerative practice came, but slowly. My receipt says
he for the first year was five pounds five shillings,
the second twenty six pounds, the third fifty four pounds,
(17:49):
the fourth ninety six pounds, the fifth one hundred pounds,
the sixth two hundred pounds, the seventh four hundred pounds,
the eighth six hundred ten pounds, the ninth, the year
in which he was appointed surgeon to the hospital, eleven
hundred pounds. This was in eighteen hundred, when his uncle
(18:10):
William Cooper resigned the surgency. It might have been supposed
that the uncle would favor his nephew's succession in every
way possible, but he rather supported mister Morris, the strongest
competitor for the rising star, made the elder jealous of
his brilliancy, and moreover always regarded Leine at Saint Thomas's
(18:31):
as his uncle superior. Thus Astley Cooper's success was by
no means certain, as his political associations with horn Took
and thie Wall were strenuously alleged against him. But Astley,
ever preferring success to politics, resolved on giving up the
letter and on being neutral for the future at any
(18:52):
rate as to all open proceedings. This resolve secured his
appointment by mister Harrison, the well known Church of Guise, who,
with Sir Astley, she is the highest credit in the
establishment of its medical school. He now absented himself from
mister Cline's political parties, and always advised young surgeons not
(19:14):
to attach themselves to particular parties as they do, these
must extend to persons of all views. He also to
leave no stone unturned personally canvassed each of the seventy
two governors. In eighteen hundred, Astley made his first communication
to the Royal Society on the effects of destruction of
(19:35):
the tympanic membrane of the ear. He had found that
considerable openings might be made in the membrane without impairing
the hearing power. He consequently applied this operation to certain
kinds of deafness resulting from disease or obstruction in the
Eustachian tube, and in eighteen o one sent in another
(19:56):
paper detailing the results of twenty cases. Although oh his
success in restoring lost hearing was much less than he
had anticipated, the operation has since been frequently performed, and
the Royal Society eighteen o two awarded him the Cockly
Medal for these papers. In the same year he was
(20:16):
elected f R s Asthley. Grouper's activities were at this
time strongly directed towards the improvement of his profession, by
intercourse and discussion at societies of several of which he
was the life and soul. The Physical Society at Guy's
Hospital afforded his earliest opportunity of this kind, and long
(20:38):
retained his active interest. During his short stay at Edinburgh,
his predominance was so evident that he was chosen president
of a society to protect students' rights against usurpations by
the professors. Here also he joined a speculative society and
read a paper in favor of the Berkeoleean of matter.
(21:01):
One of the debates which he opened on the subject
is man a free agent. He would have been a
president of the Royal Medical Society at Edinburgh had he
returned for a second winter, so much did he distinguish
himself in debate. At a later period, the strength of
his association with Edinburgh was attested by his forming the
(21:22):
Edinburgh Club in London for former Edinburgh medical students.
Speaker 2 (21:27):
The most important.
Speaker 1 (21:28):
Society, however, with the foundation of which he was connected,
was the Royal Medical Trilurgical Society, which originated in a
secession for the Medical Society of London. Doki Yelliley, who
was intimately connected with the new foundation, says of mister Cooper.
At this time I never saw any one more open
(21:49):
hearted as a companion, more unreserved in his remarks, with
always a large store of information at his command, and
who was at the same time more kindly despite and
abounding in all sorts of material for the gratification of
those with whom he associated. He was not a reading man,
(22:09):
but he contrived to get the most valuable information of
every description, whether professional or general, and always to use
it in the best, the most attractive, and the readiest way.
The treasurer of the Society was Astley Cooper, and he
rendered essential service. The earliest volume of its Transactions, published
(22:30):
in eighteen o nine, contained a paper recording his first
operation for the relief of anneurism of the carotid artery
by tying up below the anneurism, a method now established.
But he had previously published Part one in eighteen o
four Part two in eighteen o seven, a work which
(22:51):
largely contributed to his reputation, namely on her Near or Rupture.
A second edition was published in eighteen twenty seven. The
anatomical structures concerned were excellently expounded and illustrated, and the
experience gained. Infrequently and successfully operating in cases of this
(23:11):
disease gave mister Cooper a possession of the highest authority,
as so often happens to medical men. His attention was
especially called to this disease from the fact that he
had been subject to it from early life. The anatomical
study he undertook in order to perfect his knowledge of
this matter was immense. I have related no case, he says,
(23:35):
and given no remark, but the truth of which I
cannot vouch. When his pupils showed him some interesting appearance
in a dissection, he would say, that is the way, sir,
to learn the profession. Look for yourself. Never mind what
other people may say. No opinion or theories can interfere
with information derived from dissection. The expense of the illustrations
(24:00):
to this work was so great that mister Cooper was
loser of a thousand pounds by it when every copy
had been sold. In eighteen o six, mister Cooper left
Saint Mary Axe to occupy the house in New broad Street,
which for nine years was crowded by his patients during
the most remunerative years of his life. In those years,
(24:22):
he rose at six, dissected privately till eight, and from
half past eight saw large numbers a gratitude of his patients.
At breakfast, he ate only two well bettered hot rolls,
drank his tea cool at a draft, read his paper
a few minutes, and then was off to his consulting room,
turning round with a sweet, benign smile as he left
(24:45):
the room. Patients crowded his rooms and besieged Charles, using
manifold devices to get the earliest interview possible. At one
o'clock he would scarcely see another patient, even if the
house was full, but if detained half an hour later,
would fly into a rage, abuse Charles and jump into
(25:06):
his carriage, leaving Charles to appease the disappointed patients. Sometimes
the people in the hall and anteroom were so importunate
that mister Cooper was driven to escape through his stables
into a passage by Bishop's Gate Church. At Guy's he
was awaited by a crowd of pupils on the steps,
and at once went into the wards, addressing the patients
(25:29):
with such tenderness of voice and expression that he at
once gained their confidence. His few pertinent questions and quick
diagnosis were of themselves remarkable, no less than the judicious,
calm manner in which he enforced the necessity for operations
when required. At two, the pupils would suddenly leave the ward,
(25:50):
run across the street to the Old Saint Thomas's Hospital,
and seat themselves in the anatomical theater. After the lecture,
which was often so crowded that men stood in the
gangways and passages near to gain such portions of his
lecture as they might fortunately pick up, he went round
the dissecting room, and afterwards left the hospital to visit
(26:13):
patients or to operate privately, Returning home at half past
six or seven, every spear minute in his carriage was
occupied with dictating to his assistance notes of remarks on
cases or other subjects on which he was engaged. At dinner,
he ate rapidly and not very elegantly, talking and joking.
(26:37):
After dinner he slept for ten minutes at will, and
then started to his surgical lecture. If it were a
lecture night. In the evening he was usually again on
a round of visits till midnight. Doctor Pettigrew, in his
Medical Portrait Gallery thus vividly describes the overpowering influence Sir
Astley had upon his pupils. I can never forget the
(27:00):
enthusiasm with which he entered upon the performance of any
duty calculated to a bridge human suffering. This enthusiasm, by
the generosity of his character, his familiar manner, and the
excellence of his temper he imparted to all around him,
and the extent of the obligations of the present and
(27:21):
of after ages to Sir Astley Cooper is thus forming
able and spirited surgeons can never be accurately estimated. He
was the idol of the Borough School. The pupils followed
him in troops, And like Tulanaeus, who has been described
as proceeding upon his botanical excursions accompanied by hundreds of students,
(27:44):
so may Sir Astley be depicted traversing the wards of
the hospital with an equal number of pupils, listening with
almost breathless anxiety to catch the observations which fell from
his lips. But on the days of operation, and this
feeling was wound up to the highest pitch, the sight
was altogether deeply interesting, the large theater of guise, crowded
(28:08):
to the ceiling, the profound silence obtained upon his entry,
that person so manly and so truly imposing, and the
awful feeling connected with the occasion, can never be forgotten
by any of his pupils. The elegance of his operation
without the slightest affectation, all ease, all kindness to the patience,
(28:29):
and equally solicitous, that nothing should be hidden from the
observation of the pupils. Rapid in execution, masterly in manner,
no hurry, no disorder, the most trifling minutia attended to
the dressings generally applied by his own hand. The light
and elegant manner in which Sir Astley employed his various
(28:50):
instruments always astonished me, and I could not refrain from
making some remarks upon it to my late master, mister Chandler,
one of the surgeons to Saint Thomas's Hospital. I observed
to him as Sir Astley's operations appeared like the graceful
efforts of an artist in making a drawing. Mister c replied, Sir,
(29:13):
it is of no consequence what instrument mister Cooper uses
they all alike to him, and I verily believe he
could operate as easily with an oyster knife as the
best bit of cutlery and lawnder shop. There was great
truth in this observation. Sir Astley was at that time
decidedly one of the first operators of the day, and
(29:35):
this must be taken in its widest sense, for it
is intended to include the planning of the operation, the
precision and dexterity in the mode of its performance, and
the readiness with which all difficulties were met and overcome.
Mister Cooper, notwithstanding his persevering industry into section, would not.
Speaker 2 (29:56):
Have found time to acquire all the knowledge.
Speaker 1 (29:59):
He did but for employing several assistants, either to dissect
the specimens he obtained.
Speaker 2 (30:05):
For operations or from.
Speaker 1 (30:07):
Post mortem examinations, or as artists and modelers amanuenses, et cetera.
He was very peremptory in his orders to his assistance
to obtain for him any specimen he required, and would
not listen to suggestions of difficulties. So in soul must
be done, he said, and his tone did not admit
(30:28):
of the possibility of failure. Thus he accumulated the large
collection of morbid specimens which he contributed to Saint Thomas's Hospital,
at a time when such collections were poo pooed and
so little regarded, that he could readily obtain any specimen
he desired, which was at the disposal of his colleagues.
(30:48):
With regard to his proceedings in these matters, the utmost
secrecy was observed, entrance to his private dissecting rooms being
jealously restricted to himself and his pace assistance. When it
was difficult to obtain leave to make a post mortem
examination in private practice, he was spent a long time
(31:09):
and arguing most strenuously upon the matter, with the relatives
pointing out the reasons which rendered it desirable in the
interests of science. His only child was examined, by his
express wish by a friend, and he lebstrict injunctions and
directions for the postmortem on his own body. In very
few cases was his determination ever prostrated. Astley Cooper reached
(31:34):
his zenith in Broad Street in one year. His income
reached twenty one thousand pounds. For many years it was
fifteen thousand pounds. One merchant prince paid him six hundred
pounds a year. The story of another who tossed him
a check for a thousand guineas in his night gap
after a successful operation for stone is well known. Many
(31:57):
of his patients wrote a check for their fee when
they consulted him, and never made it less than five guineas.
It is amusing contrast with his reputation as a surgeon
and operator. The extremely limited pharmacopeia to which he trusted
give me. He would say, opium tartarized at timmany, sulfate
(32:18):
of magnesia, calameel and bark, and I would ask for
little else, And from five or six formulie he gave
his poorer patience a constant stock of medicine. Mister Cooper
was appointed Professor of Comparative Anatomy at the Royal College
of Surgeons in eighteen thirteen, being the first appointment after
(32:39):
Sir Everard Holm retired. He lectured during only two seasons
in eighteen fourteen eighteen fifteen. Not being deeply read in
his subject, he resolved to see what industry could do
and restricted himself to three or four hours sleep. Then
he might gain additional time for the dissection of animals.
(33:00):
He also employed several assistants to dissect for him, and
the result was that his specimens came by coach loads
to each lecture. Mister Cliff remarks of one lecture, this
was an overpowering discourse and highly perfumed, the preparations being
chiefly recent and half dried and varnished. His lectures were
(33:21):
very successful, though he would have referred lecturing on surgery,
which was allotted to Abernathy. In the year last mentioned,
he resigned his professorship and also moved to New Street, West,
hoping thereby to diminish the fatigue occasion by the numerous
visits which he had to pay westward. In the following May,
(33:43):
he signaled his skill by a celebrated operation attying the
aid order or principal artery of the body for aneurysm,
in a case in which life was in the extremest peril.
The ease with which he prepared for the operation, and
the masterly skill and success with which he completed it
without the aid of chloroform, be remembered excited admiration throughout
(34:07):
the profession who could best judge of the difficulties which
had to be overcome. The patient died of incurable disease,
but the success of the operation was undoubted. End of
Section nine
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