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Speaker 1 (00:00):
Chapter nine of The Boy Travelers and the Russian Empire.
This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in
the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please
visit LibriVox dot org. Read by Elsie Selwyn. The Boy
Travelers and the Russian Empire by Thomas Wallace Knox, chapter nine.
(00:22):
For the remainder of their stay in the capital, Doctor
Bronson and the youths were more leisurely in their movements
than during the first few days. They dismissed the guard
as they felt that they could go around without his aid,
though they occasionally re engaged him for special trips when
they thought their inexperience would be a bar to their
progress and thus acting they followed out a plan adopted
(00:45):
long before. On arriving in a strange city where time
was limited, they engaged a guide in order that they
might do the stock sights of the place as quickly
as possible if they were to remain for some time.
They employed him during the first two or three days,
and afterwards shifted for themselves. This is an excellent system
(01:06):
and is recommended to all readers of this volume who
may have occasion to travel in foreign lands, having familiarized
themselves with Saint Petersburg, our friends usually spent the forenoon
of each day at the hotel. In the afternoon and
part of the evening and going about the streets, making
calls and otherwise improving their opportunities. The forenoon was, by
(01:29):
no means in idle time. Doctor Bronson was busy with
his letters and other matters, while the youths were engaged
in writing up their journals, preparing the histories which have
been mentioned elsewhere, and making various notes and observations concerning
what they saw or learned. In this way they accumulated
much valuable material, and we are specially fortunate in being
(01:51):
permitted to copy at will from what they wrote. We
have found a great deal to interest us, said Frank
at his journal, when he sat down to make a
general commentary on what they had seen. And I hardly
know where to begin. Of course, we have been much
impressed with the great number and variety of the uniforms
of the officers and soldiers of the army, and though
(02:11):
we have tried hard to recognize the different arms of
the service at sight, we have not always succeeded. We
wonder how the emperor himself can know them all, but
of course he must. We have looked for the imperial nosegay,
which one traveler describes, but have failed thus far to
find it. The story goes that one of the emperors
had a regiment composed of men whose noses were turned
(02:33):
up at an angle of forty five degrees. Whenever a
man was found anywhere in the empire with that particular
kind of nose, who was at once drafted into the regiment.
A good many of the peasants have the nose inclined
very much in the air, but facial ornaments of the
kind described for the famous regiment are not strictly the fashion.
Fred thinks the regiment composed in this way ought to
(02:55):
be good soldiers, as they would be able to smell
the smoke of battle a long way off and before
other regiments would be aware of it. Certainly, they ought
to breathe easily, and this ability was considered of great
importance by the first Napoleon. Other things being equal, he
used to say, always choose an officer with a large nose.
His respiration is more free than that of the small
(03:17):
nosed man, and with good breathing powers his mind is
clearer and his physical endurance greater. Perhaps he realized on
his retreat from Moscow that many of his pursuers were
of the kind he describes. We have been much interested
in the Mujiks or peasants, the lowest class of the
population and also the largest. Their condition has improved greatly
(03:39):
in the last twenty or thirty years, if what we
read and here is correct. We had read of the
system of serfdom and Russia before we came here, but
did not exactly understand it. Since our arrival in Saint Petersburg,
we have tried to find out about the serfs, and
here is what we have learned. To begin at the
end rather than at the beginning. There are no longer
any serf in Russia, and consequently we are talking about
(04:02):
something that belongs to the past. Serfdom or slavery formerly
existed throughout all Europe, in England, France, Germany, Spain and
other countries. It has been gradually extinguished, Russia being the
last Christian country to maintain it. Slavery still exists in
certain forms in Turkey, but as the Turks are Muslims
(04:25):
and not Christians, I don't see why we should expect
anything better in that country. Serfdom began later in Russia
than in any other European country, and perhaps that fact
excuses the Russians for being the last to give it up.
Down to the eleventh century, the peasant could move about
pretty much as he liked. The land was the property
of all, and he could cultivate any part of it
(04:46):
as long as he did not trespass upon anyone else.
In many of the villages the land is still held
on this communistic principle and is allotted every year or
every two or three years by the elders. In some
communities the land must be surrendered to the commune every
nine years, while on others the peasant has a life
tendancy or what is called in law a fee. Simple.
(05:08):
I hear someone ask how it came about that serfdom
was established. According to our authorities, it came from the
state of the country, which was just a little better
than a collection of independent principalities. The princes were cruel
and despotic, and the people turbulent. Murders of princes were
very common. The princes could only protect themselves by organizing
(05:29):
large bodyguards, which gave each prince a small army of
men around him. In course of time, the officers of
these bodyguards became noblemen and received grants of land. At first,
the peasants could move about on these estates with perfect freedom,
but during the sixteenth century they were attached to the soil.
In other words, they were to remain where they were
(05:50):
when the decree was issued, and whenever the land was sold,
they were sold with it. It is said that the
object of this decree was not so much in the
interest of the land owners as in that of the government,
which was unable to collect its taxes from men who
were constantly moving about. Where the land belonged to the
government and not to individuals, the peasants living upon it
(06:11):
became serfs of the crown are crown peasants. Thus, the
Russian serf might belong to a prince, nobleman, or other person,
or he might belong to the government. Private estates were
often mortgaged to the government. If the mortgage was unpaid
and property forfeited, the serfs became crown peasants instead of
private ones. There was a curious condition about serfdom in
(06:31):
Russia that while the man and his family belonged to
the master. The land which he cultivated was his own,
or at any rate could not be taken from him.
The serf owed a certain amount of labor to his master,
ordinarily three days out of every seven, and could not
leave the place without permission. A serf might hire his
time from his master in the same way that slaves
(06:52):
used to hire their time in America, but he was
required to return to the estate whenever the master told
him to do so. Many of them macare cannix Isvostayiks,
and others in the large cities before the emancipation were
serfs who came to find employment and regularly sent a
part of their wages to their master. Sometimes the masters
(07:12):
were very severe upon the serfs and treated them outrageously.
A master could send a serf into exile in Siberia
without giving any reason. The record said he was banished
by will of his master, and that was all. A woman,
a serf on the estate who had a fine voice,
came to Moscow and found a place in the chorus
at the opera house. She gradually rose to a high
(07:33):
position and was earning a large salary, half of which
she sent to her master out of caprice. He ordered
her back to the estate, where she resumed the drudgery
of a peasant life, who refused all offers of compensation
and said his serf should do what he wished. Another
serf had established a successful business in Moscow, where he
was employing two or three hundred workmen. The master allowed
(07:56):
him to remain there for years, taking first compensation a
large part of the serf's earnings, and finally, in a
fit of anger, ordered the man home again. The man
offered to pay a hundred times as much as he
could earn on the estate, but the master would not
listen to it, and the business was broken up and ruined.
Things went on in this way for two or three centuries.
Various changes were made in the laws, and the condition
(08:18):
of the serfs, especially of those belonging to the crown,
was improved from time to time. At last, in eighteen
sixty one came the decree of emancipation from the hands
of Alexander the Second, and the system of serfdom came
to an end. It was not, as many people suppose
a system of sudden and universal freedom. The emancipation was gradual,
(08:40):
as it covered a period of several years and required
a great deal of negotiation. The land owners were compensated
by the government for their loss. The serfs received grants
of land varying from five to twenty five acres with
a house and a small orchard, and the result was
that every agricultural serf became a small landowner. Private or
governments served were treated alike in this respect, and the
(09:02):
condition of the peasant class was greatly improved since they
have been free to go where they like. The serfs
have crowded to the cities in search of employment, and
the owners of factories and shops say they can now
obtain laborers much easier than before. Manufacturing interests have been
materially advanced along with agriculture, and though many persons feared
(09:23):
the results of the emancipation, it is now difficult to
find one who would like to have the old state
of things restored. Russian emancipation of the serfs an American
abolition of slavery came within a short time of each other.
Both the nations have been greatly benefited by the result,
and today an advocate of serfdom is as rare in
Russia as an advocate of slavery in the United States.
(09:47):
Frank read to his cousin the little essay we have
just quoted. Then he read it to the doctor and
asked whether it would be well to insert it in
his journal. By all means do so. The doctor replied,
there are not many people in America who understand exactly
what serfdom was, and your essay will do much to
enlighten them. Accordingly, Frank carefully copied what he had written.
(10:07):
Impressed with doctor Bronson's suggestion, we have reproduced it here
in the confidence that our youthful readers will find it
interesting and instructive. You can add to your account of serfdom.
Said doctor Bronson, that when it was established by Boris
Godonoff in sixteen o one, it was regarded by both
peasants and noble as a great popular reform, and welcomed
(10:28):
with delight. His decree went into force on Saint George's
Day in the year named, and its principal provision was
that every peasant in the Empire should in future till
and own forever the land which he then tilled and held.
Was an act of great liberality on the part of
the Czar, for by it he gave up millions of
acres belonging to the crown, and made them the property
(10:48):
of the peasants. The serf of the crown was to
till the land, build his house, pay his taxes, and
serve as a soldier whenever wanted. The private serf existed
under very nearly the same conditions, with the difference that
his life might be more oppressed under a cruel master
and more free under a kind one, than that of
the serf of the crown. This was what happened in
(11:10):
many instances, and as the masters more more likely to
be cruel than kind, and their tendency was to make
as much as possible out of their possessions, the crown
serf was generally better off than the private one. In
the beginning, the system was really the reform which was intended,
but very soon it was subject to many abuses. Year
by year things grew worse. Owners violated the law by
(11:32):
selling serfs away from their estates. The masters exacted from
their serfs every copeck they could earn, flogged them if
they lacked in their labor, and often caused them to
be severely punished or exiled on the merest caprice. Peter
the Great introduced some changes with the best intentions, but
they only made matters worse. He stopped the sale of
serfs from the estates, which was an excellent step. At
(11:54):
the same time he ordered all taxes should be collected
in a lump from the master, who should have the
power and to collect from the serfs. The evil of
this enactment was very soon apparent. Peter's successor struggled with
the problem, but none made much headway until Alexander the
Second came with his active emancipation, which you have just mentioned.
There were several conditions attached to the freedom of the
(12:17):
serf under Alexander's decree, the Doctor continued which are not
generally understood. To prevent the peasants resuming again the nomadic life,
which certain was intended to suppress. It was ordered that
no peasant could leave his village without surrendering forever all
right to the lands, and he was also required to
be clear of all claims for rent, taxes, conscription, private debts,
(12:40):
and the like. He was to provide for the support
of any members of his family dependent upon him whom
he left behind, and also presents a certificate of membership
in another commune or exhibit the title deeds to a
plot of land of not less than a given area.
These requirements were found in excellent restriction, as under them awnly,
(13:00):
the thrifty and enterprising serfs were able to clear off
all demands upon them and pay the amount required for
entering another community. Men of this class found their way
to the cities in larger towns, where many of them
have risen in wealth and influence, while the quiet, plotting
peasants who remained on the estates until their lands have
generally prospered. A gentleman who has studied this question wrote
(13:22):
recently as follows. Opposite and extreme opinions prevail as to
the results of emancipation. Yet on massing and balancing his
observations on the whole, a stranger must perceive that under
emancipation the peasant is better dressed, better lodged, and better fed.
That his wife is healthier, his children cleaner, in his
homestead tidier, that he and his belongings are improved by
(13:44):
the gift which changed him from chattel to a man.
He builds his cabin of better wood. And in the
eastern provinces, if not in all you find improvements in
the walls and roof. He paints the logs and fills
up the cracks with plaster where he formerly left them there,
and stuffed with moss. He sends his boys to school
and goes himself more frequently to church. The burgher class
(14:08):
and the merchant class have been equally benefited by the change.
A good many peasants have become burghers, and a good
many burghers merchants. All the domestic and useful trades have
been quickened into life. More shoes or want, More carts
are wanted, more cabins are built, Hats, coats, and cloaks
are in higher demand. The bakeries and breweries find more
(14:30):
to do. The teacher gets more pupils, and the banker
has more customers on his books. With a few more
words upon serfdom in its relation to other forms of slavery,
the subject was dropped, and our friends went out for
a walk. As they passed along the Nevsky, they were
suddenly involved in a crowd and half forced into the
door of a shop which they had visited the day before.
(14:52):
They were recognized by the proprietor, who invited them to
enter and make themselves comfortable. The Emperor's coming in a
few minutes, he explained, and the police are clearing the
way for him. One of the youths asked if it
was always necessary to clear the streets in this way
when the Emperor rode out, Not by any means, the
shopkeeper replied, As he often rides out in a droski
(15:14):
with only a single attendant following him. He goes at
full speed along the street, and his progress is so
rapid that not one person and twenty can recognize him
before he gets out of sight. If he goes less rapidly,
he is followed by several officers, and when he rides
in a carriage with two or more horses, he is
accompanied by his bodyguard of Circassians, or by a company
(15:34):
or section of Cossacks. Nicholas and Alexander the Second used
to drive about quite frequently in adraski, which was much
like the ordinary ones on the streets, except that it
was neater and more costly, and drawn by the finest
horse the Empire could produce. Since the assassination of Alexander
the Second and the plots of the Nihilists against the
(15:54):
Imperial life, we rarely see the Emperor driving in this way,
as it would afford too much opportunity for assassins. Alexander
the third generally rides in a carriage, accompanied by some
of his officers and surrounded by his bodyguard. Ah, here
they come. As he spoke, a squadron of cavalry came
in sight and soon passed the shop. Behind the cavalry
(16:16):
was a carriage drawn by two spirited horses. The emperor
occupied the rear seat, while two officers faced him on
the front seat, and another officer or possibly an orderly,
was on the box with the driver. The crowd applauded
as the ruler rode slowly by them, and to hear
the plaudits, one could readily believe that the emperor is
thoroughly beloved by his subjects. He acknowledged the cheering by
(16:39):
occasionally raising his hand in a military salute. Frank thought
he saluted in a rather mechanical way from force of
long habit. The youths said they would have recognized him
by his portraits, though they were hardly prepared for the
careworn look which was depicted on his features. After all,
whispered Frank to Fred, one can't be surprised at it,
(16:59):
and I don't know who would want to change places
with him. He must live in constant thought of assassination,
and every step he takes must be carefully watched by
those about him. So many plots have been made against
his life, and so many persons of importance have been
implicated in them, that he cannot know how soon a
new one will be formed, and can never tell who
(17:19):
about him is faithful uneasy lies the head that wears
a crown. Behind the carriage was a company of bodyguards
in Circassian chain armor and with weapons that belonged apparently
to a past age. Fred eagerly asked who and what
these men were. They are Cherkovs or Circassians, replied the shopkeeper,
(17:40):
and were formerly at war with Russia. You have read
of Shamil, the Circassian general who gave Russia a great
deal of trouble for a long time, have you not? Certainly?
Fred answered, I was reading about him only this morning.
He was born about seventeen ninety seven, and from eighteen
twenty eight till eighteen fifty nine he carried on a
defensive war against the Russians, but was finally overpowered by
(18:02):
greatly superior numbers. He used to avoid regular battles and
caused a great deal of damage to the Russians by ambuscades, surprises,
and similar warfare. That was exactly the case, said their informant,
and the Russians always acknowledged that he was an accomplished leader,
both in a military and political sense. When he surrendered
in eighteen fifty nine, the Emperor invited him to Saint
(18:23):
Petersburg and gave him a residence at Kaluga with a
handsome pension. He was made a regular gast at court,
was treated with great distinction, and soon became as ardent
in the support of Russia as he had been formally
in opposing her. He was placed in command of the
Emperor's bodyguard, which he organized from the warriors that had
formerly served under him. Shammel died in eighteen seventy one,
(18:46):
but the organization of the guard was continued. It is
whispered that the Circassians have been replaced by Russians, who
wear the old uniform, but certainly to all outward appearances,
the guard remains the same at any rate at his picture,
and that is an important consideration. The crowd that line
the sidewalk was kept well in hand by the police.
The shop keeper said that any man who tried to
(19:09):
break through the line would be arrested at once, and
no doubt the knowledge of this rule served materially to
preserve order. Russian policemen are not to be trifled with.
The route that the Emperor is to take when riding
out is never known in these latter days, through fear
of plots against his life. The precaution is a very
proper one, but it requires a large police force to
(19:29):
guard all the avenues and streets by which he may pass.
Orders are sent for the police to prepare three or
four routes, one only being traversed, and the direction is
not given to the leader of the escort until the
Emperor is seated in the carriage. Sometimes none of the
routes which have been guarded are taken, and the Emperor
enjoys a ride with nothing but his escort for his protection.
(19:52):
It is said the Czar is averse to all this precaution,
but is guided by the wishes of the Imperial Council,
and the members of his household are our friends. Thanked
the shopkeeper for his politeness and information, and as the
crowd had melted away, continued their walk. Frank observed that
the police did not move away, and this fact led
him to surmise that the Emperor intended returning by the
(20:13):
same route. Of course, that is quite possible, said the
doctor in response to Frank's suggestion, but it is not
worth our while to remain on the chance of his
doing so. It is more than likely he will return
to the palace by another road, and even if he
comes through the Nevsky, we could see no more than
we have seen already. Besides, we might arouse suspicion in
(20:33):
the minds of the police by remaining long on this spot,
and suspicion, however groundless, is not desirable. When the Emperor
goes out, the police have orders to arrest every one
whose conduct is in the least degree questionable, and so
we had better continue our walk. They suited their actions
to the doctor's word and did not tarry on the Nevsky.
(20:53):
Very soon they met another cortege, which they ascertained to
be the escort of the Chief of Police. They had
a curiosity to see his face, but were disappointed as
he was closely surrounded by his officers and men. Doctor
Bronson remarked that the Chief of Police was the most
powerful man in Russia next to the Emperor. How is that,
Fred asked, I thought the most powerful man next to
(21:15):
the Emperor was the commander in chief of the armies.
There is this difference? The doctor answered that the Chief
of Police is the only man in Russia who has
the right to go into the Emperor's presence at any
hour of the day or night. Not even the Field
Marshal in chief of the army or the Grand Admiral
of the navy can do that. The Ministers of War, Navy,
and foreign affairs have a right to an audience with
(21:37):
the Emperor every day, while the ministers of Education, Railways
and Telegraphs, finance and other home matters can only see
him once or twice a week. But at any hour
of the day, the Minister of Police can send his
name and immediately follows the messenger into the Emperor's office.
At any hour of the night, he may have the
Emperor waked and told that the Minister of Police has
(21:59):
antant communication to make. Do you suppose that is often done,
one of the youths inquired, Probably not very often, replied
doctor Bronson. But how frequently the outside public cannot possibly know.
At ordinary times, it is not likely the Minister would
ever exercise his right, as it is not wise to
waken emperor from a sound sleep, especially when you have
(22:20):
bad news for him. But when assassins are making plots
all around the capitol and palace, the emperor's safety may
easily require that he should have a personal warning. In
such case, the Minister of Police would not hesitate to
perform his duty. Their walk took them to the summer gardens,
where they sat down on one of the benches and
watched the groups of children and nursemaids, together with other
(22:43):
groups of old and young that comprise the visitors to
the place. As they sat there, the conversation recurred to
the recent topic the police. The public police is organized
very much like the same service in other countries. There
are some points of difference, but they are not great
enough to be mentioned at length. One objection to the
Russian public police is that in the cities and large towns,
(23:05):
the policemen are nearly all soldiers who have served their
time in the army and receive police appointments as rewards.
Their long service in the army imbues them with the
greatest deference to the uniform of an officer, no matter
what its wearer may be. The result is that the
policemen salute every officer that passes, and thus their attention
is drawn from their duties. Furthermore, an officer can misbehave
(23:27):
himself as much as he pleases and run very little
risk of being arrested like an ordinary offender. What can
you tell us about the secret police, one of the
youths asked, I can't tell you much about it, was
the reply. And if I could, it would not be
a secret police. It used to be a saying that
where three men were together, one was sure to be
a spy, and one or both the others might be.
(23:49):
The spies were in all classes of society and paid
by the police. They did not know each other, and
it quite often happened that two of them would report
against each other, utless to the amusement of the officials
who compared their documents. If common gossip is true, the
evil was greater in the time of Nicholas than under
any other emperor. But many people say it is about
(24:10):
as bad at one time as another. The clerk in
the hotel, the waiter in the restaurant, the shopkeeper who
was so polite to us, The tailor, hatter, bookmaker, milliner,
or any other tradesman, any or all of them, women
as well as men, may be in the employer the government,
and report your movements in conversation. Nobody knows who is
a spy, and nobody knows who is not. Consequently, it
(24:33):
is an excellent rule in Russia never to say anything
in the hearing of anyone else than ourselves that can
be called in question. Mind, I don't know of my
own knowledge that there is such a thing as a
secret police, nor that such a person as a police
spy exists in Russia. Having never said or done anything
to which the Emperor or his most zealous officer could object,
(24:54):
I have no fear of being interfered with. Here are
some of the stories which were current in the time
of Nikola. A retired officer the English Army, lived for
several years in Saint Petersburg. His manners were junial, and
he made many friends, both among the foreigners living here
and those who visited Russia. He died suddenly one day,
and one of his countrymen, who was present at the time,
(25:15):
took charge of his effects. His papers revealed the fact
that he was a spy of the government and was
specially employed to watch foreigners. Soon after the Revolution of
eighteen forty eight, a party of French gentlemen in Saint
Petersburg met at the house of one of their friends.
They had songs and speeches and a pleasant evening generally,
and as all were intimate and of the same nationality,
(25:37):
they were not at all cautious about their conversation. The
only servants present were Russians, and none of them was
known to understand French. Next morning, the host was summoned
to the police bureau, where he was politely received the
official read off, the list of persons present, and a
very accurate report of the songs, toasts and speeches of
the evening. Then he asked the host of the the
(26:00):
account was correct. The latter tremblingly answered that it was,
and was then told he had been very imprudent, an
assertion he could not well deny. He was dismissed with
a caution not to repeat the imprudence, and you may
be sure he did not. He never gave another party,
and never could he guess whether the spy was one
of his guests and compatriots or one of the servants
(26:21):
who understood French while pretending to be ignorant of it.
A great reform has taken place in matters which were
formerly in the control of the police are now managed
by courts of law. Trial by jury has been established,
and though there are many hindrances on account of the
scarcity of lawyers and judges and the ignorance of jurors,
this system is working well. The law schools are filled
(26:44):
with students, and in a few years the machinery of
the courts will not be unlike that of other lands.
But the police power is still too great for the
safety of the people, and perhaps no persons are more
aware of it than the Emperor and his advisers. The
police can imprison or exile a man for administrative purposes,
without any trial whatever, and without even letting him know
(27:05):
the nature of his offense. The police may in certain
cases revise a sentence which has been decreed by a court,
and punish a man who has been acquitted after trial,
but they do not often exercise the right. The author
of Free Russia says that while he was staying at
archangel an actor and actress were brought there one day
and set down in the public square with orders to
(27:26):
take care of themselves, but on no account to leave
town without the governor's permission. They had been sent from
the capitol on a mere order of the police, without trial,
without even having been heard in defense, and with no
knowledge of the offense alleged against them. They had no
means of support, but managed to eke out in existence
by converting a barn into a theater and giving performances
(27:47):
that hardly rose to the dignity of the name of plays.
An agent of the police had driven up to their
doors and told them to get ready to start for
arch Angel in three hours. That was all. In three hours,
they were on their way to exile. The same writer
said that there was also at arch Angel a lady
of middle age who had been banished from Saint Petersburg
on the mere suspicion that she had been concerned in
(28:10):
advising some of the students at the university to send
an appeal to the Emperor for certain reforms which they desired.
There was no other charge against her, and those who
made her acquaintance that arch Angel were impressed with her
entire innocence, as she did not possess in any way
the qualities necessary for intrigue. Like the actor and actress
(28:31):
just mentioned, she had had no trial and no opportunity
to be heard. In defense. A young novelist named Geirst
published them stories which evidently gave offense. He was called
upon at midnight and told to get ready to depart
immediately away. He went, not knowing whither, until the horses
stopped at the town of Toatma, six hundred miles from
(28:51):
Saint Petersburg. There he was told to stay until fresh
orders came from the Ministry of Police. None of his
friends knew where he had gone. His lodgings were a
d and all the information that could be obtained was
from a servant who had seen him start. His letters
were seized, the newspapers were forbidden to say anything about him,
and it was only by a ruse that he was
(29:11):
able to let his friends know where he was. Any
number of these incidents are narrated, the doctor continued, and
they all show the dangerous power that is in the
hands of the police. It is said that it would
have been curtailed years ago, before the rise and spread
of nihilism, which has rendered it necessary to continue the
privilege of the police to revise sentences or imprison an
(29:34):
exile without trial for administrative purposes. Let us hope that
the better day will come very soon. I join heartily
in that hope, said Frank. Fred echoed the words of
his cousin, and they rose and continued their promenade. End
of Chapter nine read by Elsie Selwyn
Chapter nine of The Boy Travelers and the Russian Empire.
This is a LibriVox recording. All LibriVox recordings are in
the public domain. For more information or to volunteer, please
visit LibriVox dot org. Read by Elsie Selwyn. The Boy
Travelers and the Russian Empire by Thomas Wallace Knox, chapter nine.
(00:22):
For the remainder of their stay in the capital, Doctor
Bronson and the youths were more leisurely in their movements
than during the first few days. They dismissed the guard
as they felt that they could go around without his aid,
though they occasionally re engaged him for special trips when
they thought their inexperience would be a bar to their
progress and thus acting they followed out a plan adopted
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long before. On arriving in a strange city where time
was limited, they engaged a guide in order that they
might do the stock sights of the place as quickly
as possible if they were to remain for some time.
They employed him during the first two or three days,
and afterwards shifted for themselves. This is an excellent system
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and is recommended to all readers of this volume who
may have occasion to travel in foreign lands, having familiarized
themselves with Saint Petersburg, our friends usually spent the forenoon
of each day at the hotel. In the afternoon and
part of the evening and going about the streets, making
calls and otherwise improving their opportunities. The forenoon was, by
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no means in idle time. Doctor Bronson was busy with
his letters and other matters, while the youths were engaged
in writing up their journals, preparing the histories which have
been mentioned elsewhere, and making various notes and observations concerning
what they saw or learned. In this way they accumulated
much valuable material, and we are specially fortunate in being
(01:51):
permitted to copy at will from what they wrote. We
have found a great deal to interest us, said Frank
at his journal, when he sat down to make a
general commentary on what they had seen. And I hardly
know where to begin. Of course, we have been much
impressed with the great number and variety of the uniforms
of the officers and soldiers of the army, and though
(02:11):
we have tried hard to recognize the different arms of
the service at sight, we have not always succeeded. We
wonder how the emperor himself can know them all, but
of course he must. We have looked for the imperial nosegay,
which one traveler describes, but have failed thus far to
find it. The story goes that one of the emperors
had a regiment composed of men whose noses were turned
(02:33):
up at an angle of forty five degrees. Whenever a
man was found anywhere in the empire with that particular
kind of nose, who was at once drafted into the regiment.
A good many of the peasants have the nose inclined
very much in the air, but facial ornaments of the
kind described for the famous regiment are not strictly the fashion.
Fred thinks the regiment composed in this way ought to
(02:55):
be good soldiers, as they would be able to smell
the smoke of battle a long way off and before
other regiments would be aware of it. Certainly, they ought
to breathe easily, and this ability was considered of great
importance by the first Napoleon. Other things being equal, he
used to say, always choose an officer with a large nose.
His respiration is more free than that of the small
(03:17):
nosed man, and with good breathing powers his mind is
clearer and his physical endurance greater. Perhaps he realized on
his retreat from Moscow that many of his pursuers were
of the kind he describes. We have been much interested
in the Mujiks or peasants, the lowest class of the
population and also the largest. Their condition has improved greatly
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in the last twenty or thirty years, if what we
read and here is correct. We had read of the
system of serfdom and Russia before we came here, but
did not exactly understand it. Since our arrival in Saint Petersburg,
we have tried to find out about the serfs, and
here is what we have learned. To begin at the
end rather than at the beginning. There are no longer
any serf in Russia, and consequently we are talking about
(04:02):
something that belongs to the past. Serfdom or slavery formerly
existed throughout all Europe, in England, France, Germany, Spain and
other countries. It has been gradually extinguished, Russia being the
last Christian country to maintain it. Slavery still exists in
certain forms in Turkey, but as the Turks are Muslims
(04:25):
and not Christians, I don't see why we should expect
anything better in that country. Serfdom began later in Russia
than in any other European country, and perhaps that fact
excuses the Russians for being the last to give it up.
Down to the eleventh century, the peasant could move about
pretty much as he liked. The land was the property
of all, and he could cultivate any part of it
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as long as he did not trespass upon anyone else.
In many of the villages the land is still held
on this communistic principle and is allotted every year or
every two or three years by the elders. In some
communities the land must be surrendered to the commune every
nine years, while on others the peasant has a life
tendancy or what is called in law a fee. Simple.
(05:08):
I hear someone ask how it came about that serfdom
was established. According to our authorities, it came from the
state of the country, which was just a little better
than a collection of independent principalities. The princes were cruel
and despotic, and the people turbulent. Murders of princes were
very common. The princes could only protect themselves by organizing
(05:29):
large bodyguards, which gave each prince a small army of
men around him. In course of time, the officers of
these bodyguards became noblemen and received grants of land. At first,
the peasants could move about on these estates with perfect freedom,
but during the sixteenth century they were attached to the soil.
In other words, they were to remain where they were
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when the decree was issued, and whenever the land was sold,
they were sold with it. It is said that the
object of this decree was not so much in the
interest of the land owners as in that of the government,
which was unable to collect its taxes from men who
were constantly moving about. Where the land belonged to the
government and not to individuals, the peasants living upon it
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became serfs of the crown are crown peasants. Thus, the
Russian serf might belong to a prince, nobleman, or other person,
or he might belong to the government. Private estates were
often mortgaged to the government. If the mortgage was unpaid
and property forfeited, the serfs became crown peasants instead of
private ones. There was a curious condition about serfdom in
(06:31):
Russia that while the man and his family belonged to
the master. The land which he cultivated was his own,
or at any rate could not be taken from him.
The serf owed a certain amount of labor to his master,
ordinarily three days out of every seven, and could not
leave the place without permission. A serf might hire his
time from his master in the same way that slaves
(06:52):
used to hire their time in America, but he was
required to return to the estate whenever the master told
him to do so. Many of them macare cannix Isvostayiks,
and others in the large cities before the emancipation were
serfs who came to find employment and regularly sent a
part of their wages to their master. Sometimes the masters
(07:12):
were very severe upon the serfs and treated them outrageously.
A master could send a serf into exile in Siberia
without giving any reason. The record said he was banished
by will of his master, and that was all. A woman,
a serf on the estate who had a fine voice,
came to Moscow and found a place in the chorus
at the opera house. She gradually rose to a high
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position and was earning a large salary, half of which
she sent to her master out of caprice. He ordered
her back to the estate, where she resumed the drudgery
of a peasant life, who refused all offers of compensation
and said his serf should do what he wished. Another
serf had established a successful business in Moscow, where he
was employing two or three hundred workmen. The master allowed
(07:56):
him to remain there for years, taking first compensation a
large part of the serf's earnings, and finally, in a
fit of anger, ordered the man home again. The man
offered to pay a hundred times as much as he
could earn on the estate, but the master would not
listen to it, and the business was broken up and ruined.
Things went on in this way for two or three centuries.
Various changes were made in the laws, and the condition
(08:18):
of the serfs, especially of those belonging to the crown,
was improved from time to time. At last, in eighteen
sixty one came the decree of emancipation from the hands
of Alexander the Second, and the system of serfdom came
to an end. It was not, as many people suppose
a system of sudden and universal freedom. The emancipation was gradual,
(08:40):
as it covered a period of several years and required
a great deal of negotiation. The land owners were compensated
by the government for their loss. The serfs received grants
of land varying from five to twenty five acres with
a house and a small orchard, and the result was
that every agricultural serf became a small landowner. Private or
governments served were treated alike in this respect, and the
(09:02):
condition of the peasant class was greatly improved since they
have been free to go where they like. The serfs
have crowded to the cities in search of employment, and
the owners of factories and shops say they can now
obtain laborers much easier than before. Manufacturing interests have been
materially advanced along with agriculture, and though many persons feared
(09:23):
the results of the emancipation, it is now difficult to
find one who would like to have the old state
of things restored. Russian emancipation of the serfs an American
abolition of slavery came within a short time of each other.
Both the nations have been greatly benefited by the result,
and today an advocate of serfdom is as rare in
Russia as an advocate of slavery in the United States.
(09:47):
Frank read to his cousin the little essay we have
just quoted. Then he read it to the doctor and
asked whether it would be well to insert it in
his journal. By all means do so. The doctor replied,
there are not many people in America who understand exactly
what serfdom was, and your essay will do much to
enlighten them. Accordingly, Frank carefully copied what he had written.
(10:07):
Impressed with doctor Bronson's suggestion, we have reproduced it here
in the confidence that our youthful readers will find it
interesting and instructive. You can add to your account of serfdom.
Said doctor Bronson, that when it was established by Boris
Godonoff in sixteen o one, it was regarded by both
peasants and noble as a great popular reform, and welcomed
(10:28):
with delight. His decree went into force on Saint George's
Day in the year named, and its principal provision was
that every peasant in the Empire should in future till
and own forever the land which he then tilled and held.
Was an act of great liberality on the part of
the Czar, for by it he gave up millions of
acres belonging to the crown, and made them the property
(10:48):
of the peasants. The serf of the crown was to
till the land, build his house, pay his taxes, and
serve as a soldier whenever wanted. The private serf existed
under very nearly the same conditions, with the difference that
his life might be more oppressed under a cruel master
and more free under a kind one, than that of
the serf of the crown. This was what happened in
(11:10):
many instances, and as the masters more more likely to
be cruel than kind, and their tendency was to make
as much as possible out of their possessions, the crown
serf was generally better off than the private one. In
the beginning, the system was really the reform which was intended,
but very soon it was subject to many abuses. Year
by year things grew worse. Owners violated the law by
(11:32):
selling serfs away from their estates. The masters exacted from
their serfs every copeck they could earn, flogged them if
they lacked in their labor, and often caused them to
be severely punished or exiled on the merest caprice. Peter
the Great introduced some changes with the best intentions, but
they only made matters worse. He stopped the sale of
serfs from the estates, which was an excellent step. At
(11:54):
the same time he ordered all taxes should be collected
in a lump from the master, who should have the
power and to collect from the serfs. The evil of
this enactment was very soon apparent. Peter's successor struggled with
the problem, but none made much headway until Alexander the
Second came with his active emancipation, which you have just mentioned.
There were several conditions attached to the freedom of the
(12:17):
serf under Alexander's decree, the Doctor continued which are not
generally understood. To prevent the peasants resuming again the nomadic life,
which certain was intended to suppress. It was ordered that
no peasant could leave his village without surrendering forever all
right to the lands, and he was also required to
be clear of all claims for rent, taxes, conscription, private debts,
(12:40):
and the like. He was to provide for the support
of any members of his family dependent upon him whom
he left behind, and also presents a certificate of membership
in another commune or exhibit the title deeds to a
plot of land of not less than a given area.
These requirements were found in excellent restriction, as under them awnly,
(13:00):
the thrifty and enterprising serfs were able to clear off
all demands upon them and pay the amount required for
entering another community. Men of this class found their way
to the cities in larger towns, where many of them
have risen in wealth and influence, while the quiet, plotting
peasants who remained on the estates until their lands have
generally prospered. A gentleman who has studied this question wrote
(13:22):
recently as follows. Opposite and extreme opinions prevail as to
the results of emancipation. Yet on massing and balancing his
observations on the whole, a stranger must perceive that under
emancipation the peasant is better dressed, better lodged, and better fed.
That his wife is healthier, his children cleaner, in his
homestead tidier, that he and his belongings are improved by
(13:44):
the gift which changed him from chattel to a man.
He builds his cabin of better wood. And in the
eastern provinces, if not in all you find improvements in
the walls and roof. He paints the logs and fills
up the cracks with plaster where he formerly left them there,
and stuffed with moss. He sends his boys to school
and goes himself more frequently to church. The burgher class
(14:08):
and the merchant class have been equally benefited by the change.
A good many peasants have become burghers, and a good
many burghers merchants. All the domestic and useful trades have
been quickened into life. More shoes or want, More carts
are wanted, more cabins are built, Hats, coats, and cloaks
are in higher demand. The bakeries and breweries find more
(14:30):
to do. The teacher gets more pupils, and the banker
has more customers on his books. With a few more
words upon serfdom in its relation to other forms of slavery,
the subject was dropped, and our friends went out for
a walk. As they passed along the Nevsky, they were
suddenly involved in a crowd and half forced into the
door of a shop which they had visited the day before.
(14:52):
They were recognized by the proprietor, who invited them to
enter and make themselves comfortable. The Emperor's coming in a
few minutes, he explained, and the police are clearing the
way for him. One of the youths asked if it
was always necessary to clear the streets in this way
when the Emperor rode out, Not by any means, the
shopkeeper replied, As he often rides out in a droski
(15:14):
with only a single attendant following him. He goes at
full speed along the street, and his progress is so
rapid that not one person and twenty can recognize him
before he gets out of sight. If he goes less rapidly,
he is followed by several officers, and when he rides
in a carriage with two or more horses, he is
accompanied by his bodyguard of Circassians, or by a company
(15:34):
or section of Cossacks. Nicholas and Alexander the Second used
to drive about quite frequently in adraski, which was much
like the ordinary ones on the streets, except that it
was neater and more costly, and drawn by the finest
horse the Empire could produce. Since the assassination of Alexander
the Second and the plots of the Nihilists against the
(15:54):
Imperial life, we rarely see the Emperor driving in this way,
as it would afford too much opportunity for assassins. Alexander
the third generally rides in a carriage, accompanied by some
of his officers and surrounded by his bodyguard. Ah, here
they come. As he spoke, a squadron of cavalry came
in sight and soon passed the shop. Behind the cavalry
(16:16):
was a carriage drawn by two spirited horses. The emperor
occupied the rear seat, while two officers faced him on
the front seat, and another officer or possibly an orderly,
was on the box with the driver. The crowd applauded
as the ruler rode slowly by them, and to hear
the plaudits, one could readily believe that the emperor is
thoroughly beloved by his subjects. He acknowledged the cheering by
(16:39):
occasionally raising his hand in a military salute. Frank thought
he saluted in a rather mechanical way from force of
long habit. The youths said they would have recognized him
by his portraits, though they were hardly prepared for the
careworn look which was depicted on his features. After all,
whispered Frank to Fred, one can't be surprised at it,
(16:59):
and I don't know who would want to change places
with him. He must live in constant thought of assassination,
and every step he takes must be carefully watched by
those about him. So many plots have been made against
his life, and so many persons of importance have been
implicated in them, that he cannot know how soon a
new one will be formed, and can never tell who
(17:19):
about him is faithful uneasy lies the head that wears
a crown. Behind the carriage was a company of bodyguards
in Circassian chain armor and with weapons that belonged apparently
to a past age. Fred eagerly asked who and what
these men were. They are Cherkovs or Circassians, replied the shopkeeper,
(17:40):
and were formerly at war with Russia. You have read
of Shamil, the Circassian general who gave Russia a great
deal of trouble for a long time, have you not? Certainly?
Fred answered, I was reading about him only this morning.
He was born about seventeen ninety seven, and from eighteen
twenty eight till eighteen fifty nine he carried on a
defensive war against the Russians, but was finally overpowered by
(18:02):
greatly superior numbers. He used to avoid regular battles and
caused a great deal of damage to the Russians by ambuscades, surprises,
and similar warfare. That was exactly the case, said their informant,
and the Russians always acknowledged that he was an accomplished leader,
both in a military and political sense. When he surrendered
in eighteen fifty nine, the Emperor invited him to Saint
(18:23):
Petersburg and gave him a residence at Kaluga with a
handsome pension. He was made a regular gast at court,
was treated with great distinction, and soon became as ardent
in the support of Russia as he had been formally
in opposing her. He was placed in command of the
Emperor's bodyguard, which he organized from the warriors that had
formerly served under him. Shammel died in eighteen seventy one,
(18:46):
but the organization of the guard was continued. It is
whispered that the Circassians have been replaced by Russians, who
wear the old uniform, but certainly to all outward appearances,
the guard remains the same at any rate at his picture,
and that is an important consideration. The crowd that line
the sidewalk was kept well in hand by the police.
The shop keeper said that any man who tried to
(19:09):
break through the line would be arrested at once, and
no doubt the knowledge of this rule served materially to
preserve order. Russian policemen are not to be trifled with.
The route that the Emperor is to take when riding
out is never known in these latter days, through fear
of plots against his life. The precaution is a very
proper one, but it requires a large police force to
(19:29):
guard all the avenues and streets by which he may pass.
Orders are sent for the police to prepare three or
four routes, one only being traversed, and the direction is
not given to the leader of the escort until the
Emperor is seated in the carriage. Sometimes none of the
routes which have been guarded are taken, and the Emperor
enjoys a ride with nothing but his escort for his protection.
(19:52):
It is said the Czar is averse to all this precaution,
but is guided by the wishes of the Imperial Council,
and the members of his household are our friends. Thanked
the shopkeeper for his politeness and information, and as the
crowd had melted away, continued their walk. Frank observed that
the police did not move away, and this fact led
him to surmise that the Emperor intended returning by the
(20:13):
same route. Of course, that is quite possible, said the
doctor in response to Frank's suggestion, but it is not
worth our while to remain on the chance of his
doing so. It is more than likely he will return
to the palace by another road, and even if he
comes through the Nevsky, we could see no more than
we have seen already. Besides, we might arouse suspicion in
(20:33):
the minds of the police by remaining long on this spot,
and suspicion, however groundless, is not desirable. When the Emperor
goes out, the police have orders to arrest every one
whose conduct is in the least degree questionable, and so
we had better continue our walk. They suited their actions
to the doctor's word and did not tarry on the Nevsky.
(20:53):
Very soon they met another cortege, which they ascertained to
be the escort of the Chief of Police. They had
a curiosity to see his face, but were disappointed as
he was closely surrounded by his officers and men. Doctor
Bronson remarked that the Chief of Police was the most
powerful man in Russia next to the Emperor. How is that,
Fred asked, I thought the most powerful man next to
(21:15):
the Emperor was the commander in chief of the armies.
There is this difference? The doctor answered that the Chief
of Police is the only man in Russia who has
the right to go into the Emperor's presence at any
hour of the day or night. Not even the Field
Marshal in chief of the army or the Grand Admiral
of the navy can do that. The Ministers of War, Navy,
and foreign affairs have a right to an audience with
(21:37):
the Emperor every day, while the ministers of Education, Railways
and Telegraphs, finance and other home matters can only see
him once or twice a week. But at any hour
of the day, the Minister of Police can send his
name and immediately follows the messenger into the Emperor's office.
At any hour of the night, he may have the
Emperor waked and told that the Minister of Police has
(21:59):
antant communication to make. Do you suppose that is often done,
one of the youths inquired, Probably not very often, replied
doctor Bronson. But how frequently the outside public cannot possibly know.
At ordinary times, it is not likely the Minister would
ever exercise his right, as it is not wise to
waken emperor from a sound sleep, especially when you have
(22:20):
bad news for him. But when assassins are making plots
all around the capitol and palace, the emperor's safety may
easily require that he should have a personal warning. In
such case, the Minister of Police would not hesitate to
perform his duty. Their walk took them to the summer gardens,
where they sat down on one of the benches and
watched the groups of children and nursemaids, together with other
(22:43):
groups of old and young that comprise the visitors to
the place. As they sat there, the conversation recurred to
the recent topic the police. The public police is organized
very much like the same service in other countries. There
are some points of difference, but they are not great
enough to be mentioned at length. One objection to the
Russian public police is that in the cities and large towns,
(23:05):
the policemen are nearly all soldiers who have served their
time in the army and receive police appointments as rewards.
Their long service in the army imbues them with the
greatest deference to the uniform of an officer, no matter
what its wearer may be. The result is that the
policemen salute every officer that passes, and thus their attention
is drawn from their duties. Furthermore, an officer can misbehave
(23:27):
himself as much as he pleases and run very little
risk of being arrested like an ordinary offender. What can
you tell us about the secret police, one of the
youths asked, I can't tell you much about it, was
the reply. And if I could, it would not be
a secret police. It used to be a saying that
where three men were together, one was sure to be
a spy, and one or both the others might be.
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The spies were in all classes of society and paid
by the police. They did not know each other, and
it quite often happened that two of them would report
against each other, utless to the amusement of the officials
who compared their documents. If common gossip is true, the
evil was greater in the time of Nicholas than under
any other emperor. But many people say it is about
(24:10):
as bad at one time as another. The clerk in
the hotel, the waiter in the restaurant, the shopkeeper who
was so polite to us, The tailor, hatter, bookmaker, milliner,
or any other tradesman, any or all of them, women
as well as men, may be in the employer the government,
and report your movements in conversation. Nobody knows who is
a spy, and nobody knows who is not. Consequently, it
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is an excellent rule in Russia never to say anything
in the hearing of anyone else than ourselves that can
be called in question. Mind, I don't know of my
own knowledge that there is such a thing as a
secret police, nor that such a person as a police
spy exists in Russia. Having never said or done anything
to which the Emperor or his most zealous officer could object,
(24:54):
I have no fear of being interfered with. Here are
some of the stories which were current in the time
of Nikola. A retired officer the English Army, lived for
several years in Saint Petersburg. His manners were junial, and
he made many friends, both among the foreigners living here
and those who visited Russia. He died suddenly one day,
and one of his countrymen, who was present at the time,
(25:15):
took charge of his effects. His papers revealed the fact
that he was a spy of the government and was
specially employed to watch foreigners. Soon after the Revolution of
eighteen forty eight, a party of French gentlemen in Saint
Petersburg met at the house of one of their friends.
They had songs and speeches and a pleasant evening generally,
and as all were intimate and of the same nationality,
(25:37):
they were not at all cautious about their conversation. The
only servants present were Russians, and none of them was
known to understand French. Next morning, the host was summoned
to the police bureau, where he was politely received the
official read off, the list of persons present, and a
very accurate report of the songs, toasts and speeches of
the evening. Then he asked the host of the the
(26:00):
account was correct. The latter tremblingly answered that it was,
and was then told he had been very imprudent, an
assertion he could not well deny. He was dismissed with
a caution not to repeat the imprudence, and you may
be sure he did not. He never gave another party,
and never could he guess whether the spy was one
of his guests and compatriots or one of the servants
(26:21):
who understood French while pretending to be ignorant of it.
A great reform has taken place in matters which were
formerly in the control of the police are now managed
by courts of law. Trial by jury has been established,
and though there are many hindrances on account of the
scarcity of lawyers and judges and the ignorance of jurors,
this system is working well. The law schools are filled
(26:44):
with students, and in a few years the machinery of
the courts will not be unlike that of other lands.
But the police power is still too great for the
safety of the people, and perhaps no persons are more
aware of it than the Emperor and his advisers. The
police can imprison or exile a man for administrative purposes,
without any trial whatever, and without even letting him know
(27:05):
the nature of his offense. The police may in certain
cases revise a sentence which has been decreed by a court,
and punish a man who has been acquitted after trial,
but they do not often exercise the right. The author
of Free Russia says that while he was staying at
archangel an actor and actress were brought there one day
and set down in the public square with orders to
(27:26):
take care of themselves, but on no account to leave
town without the governor's permission. They had been sent from
the capitol on a mere order of the police, without trial,
without even having been heard in defense, and with no
knowledge of the offense alleged against them. They had no
means of support, but managed to eke out in existence
by converting a barn into a theater and giving performances
(27:47):
that hardly rose to the dignity of the name of plays.
An agent of the police had driven up to their
doors and told them to get ready to start for
arch Angel in three hours. That was all. In three hours,
they were on their way to exile. The same writer
said that there was also at arch Angel a lady
of middle age who had been banished from Saint Petersburg
on the mere suspicion that she had been concerned in
(28:10):
advising some of the students at the university to send
an appeal to the Emperor for certain reforms which they desired.
There was no other charge against her, and those who
made her acquaintance that arch Angel were impressed with her
entire innocence, as she did not possess in any way
the qualities necessary for intrigue. Like the actor and actress
(28:31):
just mentioned, she had had no trial and no opportunity
to be heard. In defense. A young novelist named Geirst
published them stories which evidently gave offense. He was called
upon at midnight and told to get ready to depart
immediately away. He went, not knowing whither, until the horses
stopped at the town of Toatma, six hundred miles from
(28:51):
Saint Petersburg. There he was told to stay until fresh
orders came from the Ministry of Police. None of his
friends knew where he had gone. His lodgings were a
d and all the information that could be obtained was
from a servant who had seen him start. His letters
were seized, the newspapers were forbidden to say anything about him,
and it was only by a ruse that he was
(29:11):
able to let his friends know where he was. Any
number of these incidents are narrated, the doctor continued, and
they all show the dangerous power that is in the
hands of the police. It is said that it would
have been curtailed years ago, before the rise and spread
of nihilism, which has rendered it necessary to continue the
privilege of the police to revise sentences or imprison an
(29:34):
exile without trial for administrative purposes. Let us hope that
the better day will come very soon. I join heartily
in that hope, said Frank. Fred echoed the words of
his cousin, and they rose and continued their promenade. End
of Chapter nine read by Elsie Selwyn
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