Episode Transcript
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Imagine this scenario.
The late summer air of 1791hung thick and humid over the dusty
fields of western Pennsylvania.
A knot of roughly 50 farmers,their faces grim and resolute, had
gathered at a local crossroads.
Sunlight glinted off the wellworn barrels of their hunting rifles
and the rough hewn clubs they carried.
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The air crackled not just withthe heat, but with a palpable tension.
A recently arrived federal taxinspector, a nervous man in city
clothes astride a latheredhorse, was the unwilling focal point
of the farmer simmering rage.
The tax inspector's attempt toread the newly enacted tax law on
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liquor was drowned out by achorus of angry shouts and the rhythmic
thud of fists on empty whiskeybarrels used as makeshift drums.
One burly farmer, his faceweathered like old leather, stepped
forward, his face boomingacross the hushed crowd.
He brandished a charred effigyof the tax collector, a stark warning
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of the farmers disdain forwhat they considered an unjust intrusion
on their livelihoods and their liberty.
The inspector, pale andclearly fearing for his safety, could
only stammer a few wordsbefore being forced to turn his horse
around and flee back east,leaving behind him a community simmering
with rebellion and thedistinct scent of defiance hanging
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heavy in the air.
Similar situations played outacross western Pennsylvania, frontier
of the United States.
In the early 1790s.
The nation was barely a decadeold, its revolutionary ideal still
echoing, when suddenly itscitizens started turning on each
other over whiskey.
That's right.
The great experiment of theUnited States was almost over before
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it really got started.
And it wasn't because of aforeign invasion, nor a tyrannical
king.
Instead, it was due to arebellion carried out by of the United
States, armed and defiant, allbecause of a new tax on the liquor
they produced.
Welcome to history's greatest crimes.
I'm Michael.
And I'm Elena.
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And today we're not looking ata single act of murder or a daring
heist, but a crime thatthreatened to tear a new nation apart
before it truly found its footing.
We're talking about arebellion, an insurrection and open
defiance of the law thatforced the first president of the
United States, GeorgeWashington, to personally lead an
army against his own citizens.
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This is the story of theWhiskey Rebellion, which took place
between 1791 and 1794.
And beyond just being aprotest over attacks, this event
was a fundamental challenge tothe very authority of the newly formed
federal government.
So when we label this a crime,we're adopting the perspective of
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that fledgling governmentwhich saw these actions as an illegal
and dangerous affront to its Legitimacy.
This rebellion became acrucible, a defining moment, where
the abstract ideals of libertypassionately invoked by the rebels
clashed head on with thepractical necessity of a functioning,
authoritative government.
The outcome would shape notjust the enforcement of a single
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tax, but the very character ofthe American nation determined whether
federal law would reignsupreme or if regional defiance could
successfully challenge the Union.
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To understand the WhiskeyRebellion, we have to go back to
the hangover from theRevolutionary War, which officially
ended in 1783.
In the years that followed,the United States might have been
independent, but it wasdrowning in debts that had racked
up during the war itself.
The US owed about 11.7 millionto foreigners, mostly to Dutch bankers
and the French government, andabout 42 million to the domestic
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creditors.
On top of that, the statesalso had a ton of debt, around 25
million.
In total, the US owed a littlemore than $75 million, which equaled
out to about 30, 30% debt toGDP ratio.
I will add here that whilethat sounds like quite a lot of money,
and it certainly was at thetime, the debt to GDP ratio today
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is 124%.
But it was a very different time.
It was a different time indeed.
Throughout the 1780s, though,American officials attempted to find
a way to reduce that debt andto grow the nation's economy.
The first political parties,the Federalists and the Republicans,
each had their own approach toachieving that goal.
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The Republicans promoted ahands off approach for the federal
government.
They wanted the states to beable to find their own solutions
to their own debts.
It's important to keep in mindthat many of the northern states
carried more war debt thanthose in the South.
And as most Republicans werefrom those Southern states, they
didn't want their state totake on heavier debts of other Northern
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states.
In contrast, the Federalistswanted the federal government to
assume individual state debtsto consolidate power and establish
national credit.
But to pay for it all, theyneeded revenue.
An answer to this problem.
In January of 1791, Secretaryof the treasury and leader of the
Federalist, AlexanderHamilton, proposed an excise tax
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upon spirits distilled withinthe United States.
In other words, a tax on liquor.
That's correct.
And on paper, this tax mighthave seemed innocuous, nothing more
than a party foul.
But what Hamilton, theFederalists and the rest of Congress
failed to predict was thevehement rejection of this tax by
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Americans living on the frontier.
This oversight wasn't justabout economics.
It was a fundamentalmisreading of the frontier psyche
and its deep seated suspicionof centralized authority.
A sentiment hardened by Yearsof perceived neglect.
This was especially the casefor frontier farmers in western Pennsylvania.
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We have to remember that thatwas about as far west as American
society extended at the time.
There were plans for theNorthwest territory, which would
ultimately become the statesof Ohio, Kentucky, Michigan, Wisconsin
and Illinois.
But most Americans hadn't madeit that far west yet.
So the farmers of westernPennsylvania were living on the frontier,
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and many of them were makingwhiskey to support their families.
It wasn't just a drink forthese people, it was a lifeline.
While eastern farmers couldreadily transport their grain to
market, Westerners faced thehard task of moving their crops great
distances to the east over themountains along poured dirt roads.
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Given this difficulty, manyfrontier farmers distilled their
surplus grain into more easilytransportable whiskey.
It was, in effect, a form ofcurrency, a vital medium of exchange
at a cash poor economy.
And Hamilton's tax hit them hard.
The 1791 excise law set avarying rate, with smaller distillers
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often paying more than twiceper gallon what larger producers
paid.
Yikes, that seems unfair.
Plus, all payments had to bein cash, which was in short supply
at the time.
This wasn't just an economicburden, it was a perceived as a deep
injustice.
And it wasn't just the moneythat was the issue.
But western farmers saw thisas another policy dictated by the
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eastern elite.
They felt it was an abuse offederal authority, wrongly targeting
a demographic that relied oncrops such as corn, rye and grain
to earn a profit.
And adding to that, Elena.
Since it had only been a fewyears since the Revolutionary war
had ended, many Americansremembered the British monarchy and
their lack of representation.
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And with that in mind, Westernfarmers in particular wanted a life
outside the reach of thegovernment as much as possible.
The liquor tax, thereforebecame a symbol of broader grievances,
a feeling that their concernsand goals were being ignored by a
distant government moreinterested in benefiting eastern
commercial interests.
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Adding insult to injury, thelaw required all whiskey stills to
be registered.
And in case you don't know, astill was what a farmer used to turn
grain into whiskey.
And anyone cited for nonpayment in connection with registering
their still had to appear indistant federal courts.
For Pennsylvanians, that meanta 300 mile trek to Philadelphia.
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In my opinion, that's a prettyheavy burden for people who still
only had the horse as theirprimary form of transportation.
I agree.
Hamilton, however, saw the taxas more than just revenue.
According to one biography ofHamilton, he confessed to Washington
an ulterior political motivefor this liquor tax.
He wanted the federalgovernment to, quote, lay hold of
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so valuable a resource ofrevenue before it was generally preoccupied
by the state governments.
That seems to point to adeliberate strategy to centralize
power.
A move that directlyconflicted with the frontier's desire
for autonomy.
Absolutely.
In fact, Hamilton argued inthe famous Federalist Papers in 1787
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that if the tax quote shouldtend to diminish the consumption
of alcohol, such an effectwould be equally favorable to the
agriculture, to the economy,to the morals, and to the health
of society, end quote.
A rather paternalistic view,wouldn't you say, Elena?
Especially when consideringthe frontier's economic realities.
I mean, this was how farmersin the west were feeding their families
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and keeping themselves afloat.
Paternalistic and blind to therealities on the ground.
No doubt the clash was inevitable.
Hamilton's vision of a strong,fiscally sound nation, even if it
meant imposing what heconsidered a luxury tax with moral
benefits, ran directly counterto the western farmers understanding
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of liberty and economic self determination.
They had just fought arevolution against what they perceived
as unfair taxation and distant rule.
To them, Hamilton's tacks feltlike a betrayal of those very principles.
The stage was set for a showdown.
The whiskey boys, as they cameto be known, weren't gonna take this
one.
Lying.
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The initial response to thewhiskey tax in western Pennsylvania
wasn't immediate armed rebellion.
It started with what one might expect.
Petitions, meetings, vocalopposition, as historians note.
They tried, quote, diplomatic avenues.
But their petitions fell ondeaf ears.
And when diplomacy failed,frustration boiled over into direct
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action.
This escalation wasn't merelya shift in tactics.
It reflected a growingconviction among the frontiers that
they were once again beingdenied legitimate representation
and redress, Forcing them toadopt the more confrontational methods
of the recent revolution.
The first major incidents ofviolence targeted Robert Johnson,
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A tax collector.
On September 11, 1791, he wasambushed by a disguised gang, Some
with faces painted with mud,feathered hats atop their heads,
chests bare.
End quote.
As Johnson himself laterrecounted, they, quote, tarred and
feathered him, cut off hishair and deprived him of his horse,
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Obliging him to travel on foota considerable distance in that mortifying
and painful situation.
End quote.
One of the attackers, DanielHamilton, reportedly snarled, quote,
you're not welcome here, andwe're going to show you what we do
with unwelcome visitors.
And this wasn't an isolated incident.
Throughout 1792 and 1793,resistance grew.
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Tax collectors were routinely threatened.
One source notes that peopleassembled in arms chased off the
officers appointed to enforcethe law.
They tarred and feathered,some of them, singed their wigs cut
off the tails of their horses,Put coals in their boots, and compelled
others to resign.
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The rebels were drawingdirectly from the playbook of the
american revolution, Usingsymbols and methods that had been
effective against british authority.
Insurgent groups began to formthat coordinated local opposition.
And then a mysterious figureemerged, a symbol of the rebellion,
Tom the tinker.
Now, to be clear, Tom thetinker wasn't a real person.
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Instead, the name was apseudonym used by rebels who went
around destroying the stillsof those farmers who complied with
the anonymous notes andnewspaper articles Signed by quote,
tom the tinker, Repair ofexcised stills, end quote, would
appear occasionally, issuing threats.
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One threatened distiller namedWilliam cochran First received a
note from one tom the tinkerthat threatened him with tarring
and feathering.
Later, as the same Williamcochran was returning home, he was
pursued by a collection ofdisorderly persons threatening vengeance
against him.
Sometime after that, Cochranestill was destroyed by rebels who
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also rendered his mill uselessby stealing his saw.
Finally, in a second note fromtom the tinker, the author demanded
that Cochrane publish what hehad suffered in the pittsburgh gazette
on pain of another visit inwhich he was threatened with the
destruction of his property by fire.
In other instances, farmerswho agreed to pay the excise tax
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had their barns burned withall the grain and hay they contained,
which then destroyed all oftheir income.
And we can't forget the caseof the tax collector in fayette county
in western pennsylvania.
In the same spirit as tom thetinker, A party of men, some of them
armed and all in disguise,Went to the house of the tax collector.
They broke in and demandedthat the official surrender his books
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and other records.
When he refused, the menpointed a pistol at him and swore
that if he did not comply,they would instantly put him to death.
It was at that point that thetax collector complied with their
demands.
But still not content withthis, the rioters forced the official
to promise to publish hisresignation within two weeks on pain
of another visit and thedestruction of his home.
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John holcroft, a local farmer,Is rumored to have been the man behind
the tom the tinker Persona.
This figure, whether one manor many, Represented a potent, localized
form, form of extralegaljustice, A direct challenge to the
federal government's authorityand its attempts to enforce the law
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on the frontier.
The anonymity of tom thetinker also created an atmosphere
of fear, making it incrediblydifficult for officials to pinpoint
and prosecute the leaders ofthis specific brand of intimidation.
It's chilling.
The rebels weren't justdisorganized ruffians.
They were developing their ownmethods of enforcement and communication.
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They raised liberty polls withslogans like equal taxation and no
excise, a direct echo of therevolutionary rhetoric.
Some groups even flew theirown six stripe flags, symbolizing
their distinct identity and defiance.
The six stripes representedsix western Pennsylvania counties.
These actions clearly signaledthat the rebels saw themselves as
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the true defenders ofrevolutionary principles, casting
the federal government in therole of oppressor.
The situation reached aboiling point in July of 1794.
U.S.
marshal David Lennox arrivedin western Pennsylvania to serve
writs to distillers who hadn'tpaid the tax.
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His guide, General JohnNeville, the regional tax collection
supervisor and a man deeplyunpopular with the rebels.
On July 15, after an argumentat the home of distiller William
Miller, Lennox and Nevillewere chased off by armed whiskey
boys.
The next day, an angry mobmarched on Neville's fortified home
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named Bower Hill.
Neville, a revolutionary warveteran himself, shot and killed
one of the protesters, a mannamed Oliver Mills.
That was the spark.
Enraged, a larger force of 500to 700 rebels, led by Major James
McFarlane, another warveteran, returned to Bower Hill on
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July 17.
They demanded Neville's resignation.
A firefight erupted, and afteran hour, the outnumbered soldiers
inside surrendered.
Major McFarlane was killed inthe exchange, and in retaliation,
the mob burned Bower Hill tothe ground.
This attack wasn't just a riot.
It was an organized assault ona federal representative's property,
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a clear escalation fromintimidation to open armed conflict.
In the aftermath, MajorMcFarlane was given a hero's funeral
on July 18.
His murder, as the rebels sawit, further radicalized the countryside.
On Aug.
1, about 7,000 people met atBraddock's Field, about 8 miles east
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of Pittsburgh.
The crowd mostly consisted ofpoor people, most of whom didn't
own any land, nor did theyeven own a whiskey.
Still, the furor over thewhiskey excise had unleashed anger
about other economic grievances.
Some of the most radicalprotesters wanted to march on Pittsburgh
and loot the homes of thewealthy and then burn the town to
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the ground.
Apparently, there was somepraise for the French revolution
and calls for bringing theguillotine to America.
One of the rebel leaders,named David Bradford, even compared
himself to Robespierre, aleader of the French reign of terror.
There was even some talk ofdeclaring independence from the United
States and joining with Spainor some other nation.
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That's some pretty serious rhetoric.
But ultimately, the citizensof Pittsburgh managed to defuse the
situation.
The crowd was convinced tolimit their protest to a Defiant
march through the town.
In the city itself, only thebarns of Major Andrew Kirkpatrick
were burned.
Burned?
Major Kirkpatrick was thebrother in law of the previously
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targeted General John Neville,whose house at Bower Hill had burned
by the rebels.
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News of the growing unrest inthe west began to make its way eastward.
In particular, word of theburning of Bower hill and the 7,000
man march on Pittsburgh sentshock waves through Philadelphia,
which was the nation's capitalat the time.
President George Washingtonfaced a monumental crisis.
This was no longer a localizedtax dispute.
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It was a direct challenge tothe sovereignty of the United States.
As Washington himself wouldlater state in a proclamation, the
rebel's actions violated thegreat principle upon which republican
government is founded, thatevery such government must at all
hazards enforce obedience tothe general will.
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His dilemma was profound.
How to assert federalauthority without appearing tyrannical,
a deep concern in a newlyindependent republic.
Still deeply suspicious ofcentralized power, Washington.
Initially sought a peaceful resolution.
He issued a proclamation onSeptember 15, 1792, admonishing Westerners
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for their resistance.
But the violence then only escalated.
His approach was cautious.
Understanding the symbolicweight of his actions, he needed
to be firm but not despotic tolegitimize federal power without
further alienating thefrontier population.
And Washington was trying tocarefully navigate this situation.
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While his own cabinetexperienced a familiar division.
Alexander Hamilton predictablyurged a strong, decisive military
response.
He wrote to Washington arguingfor vigorous and decisive measures
and the use of the full forceof the law.
He saw this as an opportunityto assert federal supremacy, a cornerstone
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of his political philosophy.
Thomas Jefferson representedthe opposing view, Deeply skeptical
of federal overreach andsympathetic to farmers plight.
At this point, Jefferson wasthe leader of the Republican party,
which as mentioned, didn'twant interference from a strong central
government.
So the Whiskey Rebellionbecame another battleground for their
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competing visions of America.
A conflict that was shapingthe nascent political landscape.
If you're good with Americanhistory, you may already know that
Thomas Jefferson would becomethe third president in the election
of 1800.
And on August 7, 1794,Washington issued another, more forceful
proclamation.
He commanded all persons beinginsurgents honor before the first
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day of September must disperseand retire peacefully to their respective
abodes.
He warned against aiding,abetting or comforting the perpetrators
of the aforesaid treasonable acts.
This wasn't just a plea.
It was a legal precursor tostronger action and laid the groundwork
for what was to come.
But the rebellion showed nosigns of abating.
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Federal commissioners sent tonegotiate reported back in September
of 1794 with the ominousconclusion that, quote, there is
no probability that the actsfor raising a revenue on distilled
spirits and stills can atpresent be enforced by the usual
course of civil authority andthat some more competent force is
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necessary to cause the law tobe duly executed.
End quote.
They even noted thatresistance was spreading to western
Virginia and Maryland.
Washington, in his diary,recorded his own thought process.
After hearing from deputies ofthese insurgents, he stated his,
quote, earnest wish to bringthe people of those counties to a
sense of their duty by mildand lenient means, end quote.
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However, he also declared thatif necessary, he would send in the
federal army into the westerncounties in order to convince them
that the government could andwould enforce obedience to the laws,
not suffering them to beinsulted with impunity, end quote.
The die was cast.
At Hamilton's urging and withthe legal backing of a justice who
certified that the situationwas beyond the control of civil authorities,
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Washington invoked the militiaact of 1792.
He called up a force of 12,950men from Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
Maryland and Virginia.
The government wasn't justsending a message.
It was preparing for war.
And in a move unprecedentedand never since repeated, President
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Washington himself prepared tolead them.
As he stated in hisproclamation of September 25, 1794,
a force adequate to theexigency is already in motion to
the scene of disaffection.
He warned everyone, quote, notto abet aid or comfort the insurgents
aforesaid, as they will answerthe contrary at their peril, end
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quote.
This entire process, theproclamations, the dispatch of peace
commissioners, the legalcertification by the justice, and
then the call for the militia,established a critical precedent.
It demonstrated a structured,albeit forceful, approach to handling
domestic insurrection,emphasizing legal justification before
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the ultimate deployment ofmilitary might against citizens.
This was vital for agovernment still striving to earn
the trust of a populace deeplywary of unchecked power.
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So in the fall of 1794,President George Washington set off
with a 13,000 strongfederalized militia to put down the
western uprising of theWhiskey Rebellion.
And the outcome is not too surprising.
As one historian notes, quote,the calling of the militia had the
desired effect of essentiallyending the Whiskey Rebellion, end
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quote.
By the time the army reachedPittsburgh In October of 1794, the
rebels had largely dispersedand could not be found.
Washington's grand army foundlittle organized opposition.
David Bradford, the rebelleader who compared himself to the
French revolutionaryRobespierre, fled west to Spanish
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West Florida, evading capture.
The rebellion, which hadseemed so formidable, crumbled in
the face of federal resolve.
Alexander Hamilton, who alsoaccompanied the troops, was reportedly
keen on making examples.
The militia apprehendedapproximately 150 men.
These suspects were marchedback to Philadelphia, paraded through
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the city as trophies, and theydid this on Christmas Day of 1794.
This public display wasintended to underscore the government's
victory, but bringing the rebels.
To justice proved difficult.
As noted in several accounts,a paucity of evidence and the inability
to obtain witnesses hamperedthe trials.
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This highlights the power ofunorganized resistance as well.
While the military coulddisperse the rebellion, the federal
legal system faced immensepractical challenges in prosecuting
frontier rebels in distant courts.
Out of the 150 arrested, onlyabout 20 were held for trial in Philadelphia.
And of those, only 10 actuallystood trial.
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For tre.
The definition of treasonitself was a key legal point.
U.S.
district Attorney William Rallargued that combining to defeat or
resist a federal law was theequivalent of levying war against
the United States andtherefore an act of treason.
This was a significantexpansion of the legal understanding
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of treason, setting aprecedent for future cases.
Two men, John Mitchell andPhilip Viegel, were found guilty
under this expandeddefinition, and their situation looked
grim.
However, President Washingtonpardoned them both on November 2nd
of 1795.
The reason for the pardons are telling.
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According to a letter FromOliver Walcott Jr.
To Alexander Hamilton, PhilipVigil, quote, appeared to be a person
greatly deficient in reason,in short, nearly an idiot, end quote.
John Mitchell, on the otherhand, was described as having acted,
quote, at the direction ofother insurgents, end quote, implying
he was not a primary instigator.
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Washington himself, inpardoning them, found one to be a,
quote, simpleton and the otherto be, quote, insane.
So after all the sound andfury, the military mobilization,
the arrests and the trials,the Whiskey Rebellion ended not with
mass executions, but withpresidential pardons.
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That's right, Elena.
And Washington's decision topardon Mitchell and Weigel despite
their treason convictions canbe seen as a masterful political
stroke.
While the stated reasonsfocused on their individual circumstances,
the broader context suggests acalculated move aimed at national
reconciliation.
The rebellion had exposed deepregional and ideological fissures.
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Harsh retribution could havecreated martyrs and further inflamed
anti federal sentiment in the West.
The pardons offered a path tode escalation, demonstrating strength
through successful prosecutionwhile simultaneously showing clemency.
As George Washington himselfexplained, this was crucial for a
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government seeking toestablish the authority of the laws
in the affections of all,rather than the fears of any.
The Whiskey Rebellion, thoughultimately suppressed, left an indelible
mark on the United States Itsmost immediate significance, as many
historians have noted, was theaffirmation of federal power.
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The new government had facedits first major internal challenge
and proved it could and wouldenforce its laws.
As the Library of Congressexplains, the Whiskey Rebellion was
the first test of federalauthority in the United States.
This rebellion enforced theidea that the new government had
the right to levy a particulartax that would impact citizens in
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all states.
It also enforced the idea thatthis new government had the right
to pass and enforce lawsimpacting all states.
This was a critical step indefining the relationship between
the federal government and its citizens.
But the rebellion also fueledthe flames of political division.
Opposition to the whiskey taxand the federal government's response
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built support for theRepublicans who overtook Washington's
Federalist Party for power inthe early 1800s.
The forceful suppression ofthe rebellion, while making violent,
resistant, untenable,paradoxically legitimized certain
forms of political oppositionby channeling dissent towards more
organized party based politics.
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Indeed, Thomas Jefferson, thechampion of the Republican cause,
eventually repealed the excisetax on whiskey in 1802 after becoming
president.
A quiet victory for the rebelsperhaps, or more accurately, a demonstration
that the grievances underlyingthe rebellion found a powerful voice
within the formal political process.
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And this division betweenFederalists and Republicans contributed
to the evolution of theAmerican two party system as a means
to manage and negotiatecompeting interests.
While today the United Stateshas different political parties with
different names, the dualnature of the nation's politics can
be traced back to this pointin American history.
In terms of civil liberties,the Whiskey Rebellion raised profound
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questions.
While the governmentdemonstrated its power, the event
also led to debates about theright to protest, the limits of federal
authority to quell domesticunrest and the definition of treason.
Scholarly interpretations also vary.
Some, like Carol Birkin, arguethat the episode ultimately strengthened
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US Nationalism because thepeople appreciated how well Washington
handled the rebels withoutresorting to tyranny.
Others, like historian StephenBoyd, suggests it led anti Federalist
Westerners to accept theConstitution and seek change through
voting for Republicans.
Rather than resisting thegovernment, this suggests a maturation
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of the political system wheredissent found non violent constitutional
avenues.
The Whiskey Rebellion alsohighlighted the cultural and economic
chasm between the Easternelites and the Western frontier.
Some historians argued thatthe whiskey label itself and the
name of the event was perhapsa way to minimize the social and
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political struggle of the farmers.
It was a way to reduce theWestern farmers complex grievances
about representation, economichardship and and perceived government
neglect to a mere desire for drink.
The frontier farmers, as onepetition published in the Pittsburgh
Gazette in 1794 stated felt,if the interest of Eastern America
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requires that we should bekept in poverty, it is unreasonable
from such poverty to exact contributions.
Theirs was a cry for economicjustice and fair representation,
a demand to be heard by agovernment they felt was distant
and unresponsive.
The Whiskey Rebellion,therefore, wasn't just a crime in
the simple sense.
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It was a complex, multifacetedconflict that forced Americans to
confront fundamental questionsabout their new government, their
rights, and their identity asa nation.
It represents a paradox.
It simultaneously bolsteredthe federal government's coercive
capabilities while alsofostering a more robust and legitimized
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system of political popularopposition through party politics.
This dynamic balance betweenstate authority and civil liberties,
first truly tested during theWhiskey Rebellion, continues to shape
American democracy.
It was a painful but perhapsnecessary step in the long journey
of a nation learning to govern itself.
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And with that.
I'm Michael.
And I'm Alaina.
Until next time.
Stay.
Stay.
Curious.