In 1993, the Maastricht Treaty formally established the European Union—an ambitious step toward deeper integration across the continent.
The goals were bold: a single currency, open borders, free trade, and above all, stability in Europe.
More than three decades later, the results are mixed.
The UK officially withdrew from the EU in 2020. And many detractors of the EU, or Eurosceptics, say that European integration undermines national sovereignty and identity.
Today, the EU stands at another crossroads—grappling with the ongoing war in Ukraine, internal unrest, and shifting dynamics with NATO and the United States.
Martin Holmes is a Senior Common Room Member at St Hugh’s College, Oxford, UK. Since 1989 he has been Programme Director of the University of Nebraska annual summer school at Oxford. He is the author of seven books. Our conversation centers largely around his 2022 book, From the Treaty of Versailles to the Treaty of Maastricht: Conflict, Carnage and Cooperation in Europe, 1918–1993.
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