Alexander the Great: Legend - Campaign in Asia Minor

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Episode Transcript

Speaker 1 (00:00):
Chapter five of Alexander the Great. This is LibriVox. According
all LibriVox recordings are in the public domain. For more
information not a volunteer, please visit LibriVox dot org. Recording
by Lizzie Driver. Alexander the Great by Jacob Abbot, Chapter
five Campaign in Asia Minor. Although Alexander had landed safely

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on the Asiatic shore, the way was not yet fairly
opened for him to advance into the interior of the country.
He was upon a sort of plain which was separated
from the territory beyond by natural barriers. On the south
was a range of lofty land called Mount Ida. From

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the northeastern slopes of this mountain they descended a stream
which flowed north into the sea, thus hemming Alexander's army.
Inn he must either scale the mountain or cross the
river before he could penetrate into the interior. He thought
it would be easiest to cross the river. It is

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very difficult to get a large body of horsemen and
of heavy armed soldiers with all their attendants and baggage,
over high elevations of land. This was the reason why
the army turned to the northward after landing upon the
Asiatic shore. Alexander thought the Grenacus less of an obstacle

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than Mount Ida. It was not a large stream and
was easily fordable. It was the custom in those days,
as it is now, when armies are marching, to send
forward small bodies of men in every direction to explore
the roads, remove obstacles, and discover sources of danger. These

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men are called in modern times scouts. In Alexander's day
and in the Greek language, they were called prodramy, which
means forerunners. It is the duty of these pioneers to
send messengers back continually to the main body of the army,
informing the offices of everything important which comes under their observation.

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In this case, when the army was gradually drawing near
to the river, the prodrmy came in with the news
that they had been to the river and found to
the whole opposite shore at the place of crossing lined
with Persian troops collected there to dispute the passage. The

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army continued their advance, while Alexander called the leading generals
around him to consider what was to be done. Parmenio
recommended that they should not attempt to pass the river immediately.
The Persian army consisted chiefly of cavalry. Now cavalry, though

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very terrible as an enemy on the field of battle
by day, are peculiarly exposed and defenseless in an encampment.
By night, the horses are scattered, feeding or at rest,
the arms of the men alight, and they are not
accustomed to fighting on foot. And on a sudden incursion
of an enemy at midnight into their camp, their horses

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and their horsemanship are alike useless, and they fall an
easy prey to resolute invaders. Parmenio thought, therefore, that the
Persians would not dare to remain and encamp many days
in the vicinity of Alexander's army, and that accordingly, if
they waited a little, the enemy would retreat and Alexander

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could then cross the river without incurring the danger of
a battle. But Alexander was unwilling to adopt any such policy.
He felt confident that his army was courageous and strong
enough to march on directly through the river, ascend the
bank upon the other side, and force their way through
all the opposition which the Persians could make. He knew too,

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that if this were done, it would create a strong
sensation throughout the whole country, impressing every one with a
sense of the energy and power of the army which
he was conducting, and would thus tend to intimidate the
enemy and felicitate all future operations. But this was not all.

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He had a more powerful motive still for wishing to
march right on across the river and force his way
through the vast bodies of cavalry on the opposite shore.
And this was the pleasure of performing the exploit. Accordingly,
as the army advanced towards the banks, they maneuvered to
form an order of battle, and prepared to continue their

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march as if there were no obstacles to oppose them.
The general order of battle of the Macedonian army was this.
There was a certain body of troops armed and organized
in a peculiar manner, called the phalanx. This body was
placed in the center. The men composing it were very

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heavily armed. They had shields upon their left arm, and
they carried spears sixteen feet long and pointed with iron,
which they held firmly in their two hands, with the
points projecting far before them. The men were arranged in lines,
one behind the other, and all facing the enemy, sixteen

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lines and a thousand in each line, or, as it
is expressed in military phrase, a thousand in rank and
sixteen in file, so that the phalanx contained sixteen thousand men.
The spears were so long that, when the men stood
in close order, the rear ranks being brought up near

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to those before them, the points of the spears of
eight or ten of the ranks projected in front, forming
a bristling wall of points of steel, each one of
which was held in its place by the strong arms
of an athletic and well trained soldier. This wall no force,
which in those days could be brought against it could penetrate. Men, horses, elephants.

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Everything that attempted to rush upon it rushed only to
their own destruction. Every spear, feeling the impulse of the
vigorous arms which held it, seemed to be alive, and
darted into its enemy when an enemy was at hand,
as if it felt itself the fierce hostility which directed it.

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If the enemy remained at a distance, and through javelins
or darts at the phalanx, they fell harmless, stopped by
the shields which the soldiers wore upon the left arm,
and which were held in such a manner as to
form a system of scales which covered and protected the
whole mass, and made the men almost invulnerable. The Phalanx was, thus,

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when only defending itself and in a state of rest,
an army and a fortification all in one, and it
was almost impregnable. But when it took an aggressive form,
put itself in motion, and advanced to an attack, it
was infinitely more formidable. It became then a terrible monster,

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covered with scales of brass from beneath which there projected
forward ten thousand living darting points of iron. It advanced
deliberately and calmly, but with a prodigious momentum and force.
There was nothing human in its appearance at all. It
was a huge animal, ferocious, dogged, stubborn, insensible to pain,

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knowing no fear, and bearing down with resistless and merciless
destruction upon everything that came in its way. The Phalanx
was the center and soul of Alexander's army. Powerful and
impregnable as it was, however in ancient days it would
be helpless and defenseless on a modern battle field. Solid

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balls of iron flying through the air with a velocity
which makes them invisible, would tear their way through the
pikes in the shields and the bodies of the men
who bore them without even feeling the obstruction. The phalanx
was subdivided into brigades, regiments, and battalions, and regularly officered.

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In marching, it was separated into these its constituent parts,
and sometimes in battle it acted in divisions. It was
stationed in the center of the army on the field,
and on the two sides of it were bodies of
cavalry and foot soldiers, more lightly armed than the soldiers
of the Phalanx, who could accordingly move with more alertness

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and speed, and carry their action readily wherever it might
be called for. The troops on the sides were called
the wings. Alexander himself was accustomed to command one wing
and Parmenio the other, while the phalanx crept along slowly
but terribly between. The army, thus arranged and organized, advanced

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to the river. It was a broad and shallow stream.
The Persians had assembled in vast numbers on the opposite shore.
Some historians say there were one hundred thousand men. Others
say two hundred thousand, and others six hundred thousand. However
this may be, there is no doubt their numbers were

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vastly superior to those of Alexander's army, which it will
be recollected, was less than forty thousand. There was a
narrow plain on the opposite side of the river, next
to the shore, and a range of hills beyond. The
Persian cavalry covered the plain and were ready to dash
upon the Macedonian troops the moment they should emerge from

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the water and attempt to ascend the bank. The army,
led by Alexander, descended into the stream and moved on
through the water. They encountered the onset of their enemies
on the opposite shore. A terrible and protracted struggle ensued,
but the coolness, courage, and strength of Alexander's army carried

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the day. The Persians were driven back. The Greeks effected
their landing, reorganized and formed on the shore, and the Persians,
finding that all was lost, fled in all directions. Alexander
himself took a conspicuous and a very active part in
the contest. He was easily recognized on the field of

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battle by his dress and by a white plume which
he wore in his helmet. He exposed himself to the
most imminent danger At one time, when desperately engaged with
a troop of horse which had galloped down upon him,
a Persian horseman aimed a blow at his head with
the sword. Alexander saved his head from the blow, but

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it took off his plume and a part of his helmet.
Alexander immediately thrust his antagonist through the body. At the
same moment, another horseman on another side had his sword
raised and would have killed Alexander before he could have
turned to defend himself had no help intervened. But just

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at this instant a third combatant, one of Alexander's friends,
seeing the danger, brought down so terrible a blow upon
the soldier of the second assailant as to separate his
arm from his body. Such are the stories that are told.
They may have been literally and fully true. They may
have been exaggerations or circumstances somewhat resembling them which really occurred,

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or they may have been fictitious altogether. Great generals, like
other great men, have often the credit of many exploits
which they never perform. It is the special business of
poets and historians to magnify and embellish the actions of
the great, and this art was understood as well in
ancient days as it is now. We must remember, too,

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in reading the accounts of these transactions, that it is
only the Greek side of the story that we hear.
The Persian narratives have not come down to us at
any rate. The Persian army was defeated, and that too
without the assistance of the phalanx. The horsemen and the
light troops were alone engaged. The phalanx could not be formed,

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nor could it act. In such a position. The men,
on emerging from the war, had to climb up the
banks and rush on to the attack of an enemy
consisting of squadrons of horse ready to dash at once
upon them. The Persian army was defeated and driven away.

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Alexander did not pursue them. He felt that he had
struck a very heavy blow. The news of this defeat
of the Persians would go with the speed of the
wind all over Asia Minor and operate most powerfully in
his favor. He sent home to Greece an account of
the victory, and with the account. He forwarded three hundred

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suits of armor taken from the Persian horsemen killed on
the field. These suits of armor were to be hung
up in the Parthenon, a great temple at Athens, the
most conspicuous position for them, perhaps which all Europe could afford.
The name of the Persian general who commanded at the
Battle of Granacus was Memno. He had been opposed to

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the plan of hazarding a battle. Alexander had come to
Asia with no provisions and no money. He had relied
on being able to sustain his army by his victories.
Memnon therefore strongly urged that the Persians should retreat, slowly,
carrying off all the valuable property and destroying all that

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could not be removed, taken a special care to leave
no provisions behind them. In this way, he thought that
the army of Alexander would be reduced by privitation and want,
and would in the end fall an easy prey. His
opinion was, however, overruled by the views of the other commanders,

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and the Battle of the Granacus was the consequence. Alexander
encamped to refresh his army and to take care of
the wounded. He went to see the wounded men one
by one, inquired into the circumstances of each case, and
listened to each one who was able to talk, while
he gave an account of his adventures in the battle

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and the manner in which he received his wound. To
be able thus to tell their story to their general,
and to see him listening to it with interest and pleasure,
filled their hearts with pride and joy, and the whole
army was inspired with the highest spirit of enthusiasm, and
with eager desires to have another opportunity occur in which

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they could encounter danger and death in the service of
such a leader. It is in such traits as these
that the true greatness of the soul of Alexander shines.
It must be remembered that all this time he was
but little more than twenty one. He was but just
of age. From his encampment on the Granacus, Alexander turned

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to the southward and moved along on the eastern shore
of the Aegean Sea. The country generally surrendered to him
without opposition. In fact, it was hardly Persian territory at all.
The inhabitants were mainly of Greek extraction, and had been
sometimes under Greek and sometimes under Persian rule. The conquest

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of the country resulted simply in a change of the
executive officer of each province. Alexander took special pains to
lead the people to feel that they had nothing to
fear from him. He would not allow the soldiers to
do any injury. He protected all private property. He took

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possession only of the citadels and of such government property
as he found there. And he continued the same taxes,
the same laws, and the same tribunals as had existed
before his invasion. The cities and the provinces accordingly surrendered
to him as he passed along, and in a very

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short time all the western part of Asia Minor submitted
peacefully to his sway. The narrative of this progress, as
given by the ancient historians, is diversified by a great
variety of adventures and incidents, which give great interest to
the story and strikingly illustrate the character of Alexander and

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the spirit of the times. In some places, there would
be a contest between the Greek and the Persian parties.
Before Alexander's arrival at Ephesus, the animosity had been so
great that a sort of civil war had broken out.
The Greek party had gained the ascendancy and were threatening

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a general massacre of the Persian inhabitants. Alexander promptly interposed
to protect them, though they were his enemies. The intelligence
of this act of forbearance and generosity spread all over
the land, and added greatly to the influence of Alexander's
name and the estimation in which he was held. It

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was the custom in those days for the mass of
the common soldiers to be greatly influenced by what they
called omens, that is, signs and tokens which they observed
in the flight, or the actions of birds, and other
similar appearances. In one case, the fleet which had come

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along the sea accompanying the march of the army on land,
was pent up in a harbor by a stronger Persian fleet. Outside,
one of the vessels of the Macedonian fleet was aground.
An eagle lighted upon the mast and stood perched there
for a long time, looking toward the sea. Parmenia said

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that as the eagle looked toward the sea, it indicated
that victory lay in that quarter, and he recommended that
they should arm their ships and pushed boldly out to
attack the Persians, but Alexander maintained that as the eagle
alighted on a ship which was aground, it indicated that

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they were to look for their success on the shore.
The omens could thus almost always be interpreted anyway, and
sagacious generals only sought in them the means of confirming
the courage and confidence of their soldiers in respect to
the plans which they adopted under the influence of other considerations. Altogether,

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Alexander knew very well that he was not a sailor,
and had no desire to embark on contests from which,
however they might end, he would himself personally obtain no glory.
When the winter came on, Alexander and his army were
about three or four hundred miles from home, and as

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he did not intend to advance much further until the
spring should open, to the army that all those persons,
both officers and soldiers, who had been married within the
year might go home if they choose, and spend the
winter with their brides and return to the army in
the spring. No doubt, this was an admirable stroke of policy,

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for as the number could not be large, their absence
could not materially weaken his force, and they would of
course fill all grease with tales of Alexander's energy and courage,
and of the nobleness and generosity of his character. It
was the most effectual way possible of disseminating through Europe

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the most brilliant accounts of what he had already done. Besides,
it must have awakened a new bond of sympathy and
fellow feeling between himself and his soldiers, and greatly increased
the attachment to him felt by both those who went
and those who remained. And though Alexander must been aware

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of all these advantages of the act, still no one
could have thought of or adopted such a plan unless
he was accustomed to consider and regard in his dealings
with others. The feelings are affections of the heart, and
to cherish a warm sympathy for them, the bridegroom soldiers,
full of exultation and pleasure, set forth on their return

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to Greece in an detachment under the charge of three generals,
themselves bridegrooms too. Alexander, however, had no idea of remaining
idle during the winter. He marched on from province to province,
and from city to city, meeting with every variety of adventures.

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He went first along the southern coast until he came
at length to a place where a mountain chain called
Taurus comes down to the sea coast, where it terminates
abruptly in cliffs and precipices, leaving only a narrow beach
between them and the water below. This beach was sometimes
covered and sometimes bare. It is true there is very

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little tide in the Mediterranean, but the level of the
water along the shore is altered considerably by the long
continued pressure exerted in one direction or another by winds
and storms. The water was up when Alexander reached this
pass still he determined to march his army through it.

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There was another way back among the mountains, but Alexander
seemed disposed to gratify the love of adventure which his
army felt by introducing them to a novel scene of danger.
They accordingly defiled along under these cliffs, marching, as they say,
sometimes up to the waist in water, the swell rolling

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in upon them all the time from the offing. Having
at length exceeded in passing sea round this frowning buttress
of the mountains, Alexander turned northward and advanced into the
very heart of Asia Minor. In doing this yet to
pass over the range which he had come round before,

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and as it was winter, his army were for a
time enveloped in snows and storms among the wild and
frightful defiles. They had, here, in addition to the dangers
and hardships of the way and of the season, to
encounter the hostility of their foes. As the tribes who
inhabited these mountains assembled to dispute the passage, Alexander was

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victorious and reached a valley through which there flows a
river which has handed down its name to the English
language and literature. This river was the Meander. Its beautiful
winding through veridant and fertile valleys, was so renowned that
every stream which imitates his example is said to meander

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to the present day. During all this time, Parmenio had
remained in the western part of Asia Minor with a
considerable body of the army. As the spring approached, Alexander
sent him orders to go to Gordium, whither he was
himself proceeding, and meet him there. He also directed that

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the detachment which had gone home, should, on recrossing the Hellespont,
on their return, proceed eastward to Gordium, thus making that
city the great rendezvous for the commencement of his next campaign.
One reason why Alexander desired to go to Gordium was
that he wished to untie the famous Gordian knot. The

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story of the Gordian Knot was this. Gordius was a
sort of mountain farmer. One day he was plowing, and
an eagle came down and alighted upon his yoke, and
remained there until he had finished his plowing. This was
an omen but what was the significance of it Gordius

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did not know, and he accordingly went to a neighboring
town in order to consult the prophets and soothsayers. On
his way, he met a damsel, who, like Rebecca in
the days of Abraham, was going forth to draw water.
Gordius fell into conversation with her and related to her
the occurrence which had interested him so strongly. The maiden

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advised him to go back and offer a sacrifice to Jupiter. Finally,
she consented to go back with him and aid him.
The affair ended in her becoming his wife, and they
lived together in peace for many years upon their farm.
They had a son named Midas. The father and mother

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were accustomed to go out sometimes in their cart or wagon,
drawn by the oxen Midas driving. One day they were
going into the town in this way at a time
when it happened that there was an assembly convened, which
was in a state of great perplexity on account of
the civil dissensions and contest which prevailed in the country.

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They had just inquired of an oracle what they should do.
The oracle said that a cart would bring them a
king who would terminate their eternal broils. Just then Midas
came up, driving the cart in which his father and
mother were seated. The assembly thought at once that this
must be the cart meant by the oracle, and they

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made Gudious king by acclamation. They took the cart and
the yoke to preserve as sacred relicus, consecrating them to Jupiter.
And Gudius tied the ooak to the pole of the
cart by a thong of leather, making a n so
close and complicated that nobody could untie it again. It

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was called the Gudean knot. The oracle afterwards said that
whoever should untie this knot should become monarch of all Asia.
Thus far nobody had succeeded. Alexander felt a great desire
to see this knot and try what he could do.
He went accordingly into the temple where the sacred cart

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had been deposited, and, after looking at the knot, and
satisfying himself that the task of untying it was hopeless,
he cut it to pieces with his sword. How far
the circumstances of this whole story are true, and how
far fictitious? No one can tell the story itself. However,

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as thus related has come down from generation to generation
in every country of Europe for two thousand years, and
any extrication of one's self from a difficulty by violent
means has been called cutting the Gaudian knot to the
present day. At length, the whole army was assembled, and

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the king recommenced his progress. He went on successfully for
some weeks, moving in a southeasterly direction, and bringing the
whole country under his dominion, until at length, when he
reached Tarsus, an event occurred which nearly terminated his career.

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There were some circumstances which caused him to press forward
with the utmost effort in approaching Tarsus, And as the
day was warm, he got very much overcome with heat
and fatigue. In this state he went and plunged suddenly
into the river Sindus to bathe. Now, the Cindus is

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a small stream flowing by Tarsus, and it comes down
from Mount Taurus at a short distance back from the city.
Such streams are always very cold. Alexander was immediately seized
with a very violent chill, and was taken out of
the water to sh shivering excessively, and at length fainted away.

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They thought he was dying. They bore him to his tent,
and as tidings of their leader's danger spread through the camp,
the whole army, officers and soldiers were thrown into the
greatest consternation and grief. A violent, protracted fever came on.

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In the course of it, an instant occurred, which strikingly
illustrates the boldness and originality of Alexander's character. The name
of his physician was Philip. Philip had been preparing a
particular medicine for him, which it seems required some days
to make ready. Just before it was presented, Alexander received

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a letter from Parmenio informing him that he had good
reason to believe that Philip had been bribed by the
Persians to murder him during his sickness by administering poison
in then name of medicine, he wrote. He said, to
put him on his guard against any medicine which Philip
might offer him. Alexander put the letter under his pillow

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and communicated its contents to no one at length. When
the medicine was ready, Philip brought it in. Alexander took
the cup containing it with one hand, and with the
other he handed Philip the communication which he had received
from Parmenio, saying read that letter. As soon as Philip

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had finished reading it and was ready to look up,
Alexander drank off the draft in full and laid down
the cup with an air of perfect confidence that he
had nothing to fear. Some persons think that Alexander watched
the countenance of his physician while he was reading the letter,
and that he was led to take the medicine by

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his confidence in his power to determine the guilt or
the innocence of a person. Thus, accused by his look.
Others supposed that the act was an expression of implicit
faith in the integrity and fidelity of his servant, and
that he intended it as a testimony given in a
very pointed and decisive and at the same time delicate manner,

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that he was not suspicious of his friends or easily
led to distrust their faithfulness. Philip was at any rate,
extremely gratified at the procedure, and Alexander recovered. Alexander had
now traversed the whole extent of Asia Minor and had
subdued the entire country to his way. He was now

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advancing to another district, that of Syria and Palestine, which
lies on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. To
enter this new territory he had to pass over a
narrow plane which lay between the mountains and the sea,
at a place Calledyssus. Here he was met by the

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main body of the Persian army, and the great Battle
of Issus was fought. This battle will be the subject
of the next chapter. End of Chapter five