Christian Research Journal Reads Episode 159: A Christian Exploration of the Baha’i Faith

This is Episode 159 of Christian Research Journal Reads. This is an audio version of the CHRISTIAN RESEARCH JOURNAL article, “A Christian Exploration of the Baha’i Faith” by Derek Cooper. https://www.equip.org/articles/a-christian-exploration-of-the-bahai-faith/

 This article was published exclusively online in the Christian Research Journal, Volume 48, number 03 (2025).It was accompanied by Postmodern Realities Episode 458: A Christian Exploration of the Baha’i Faith.

This podcast presents audio versions of Christian Research Journal articles. As the flagship publication of the Christian Research Institute, the Journal seeks to equip followers of Christ to think and to live Christianly—to exercise truth and experience life. Truth, especially essential Christian doctrine, forms the basis for how we live our lives in Christ. As the apostle Paul instructed Timothy in 1 Tim. 4:16, “Watch your life and doctrine closely. Persevere in them, because if you do, you will save both yourself and your hearers.”The Christian Research Journal enjoyed a print incarnation of almost 45 years. Now exclusively an online publication, the Journal consists of thousands of free articles. We hope that through these audio articles you are not only equipped to proclaim and defend your faith but that as a disciple you also draw closer to Christ in your walk with Him.  You can find the written version of each article that is an episode of Christian Research Journal Reads at the website of the Christian Research Institute, equip.org. All Christian Research Journal articles at equip.org are completely free and do not require a subscription and are not under a paywall.All episodes are available at the following podcast platforms with more being added daily! You can help spread the word about this podcast by giving us a rating and review from the other channels we are listed on and telling others!You can view off our Website at the at this link and off our Journal main page. 



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Episode Transcript

Speaker 1 (00:06):
You're listening to episode one hundred and fifty nine of
the Christian Research Journal Reads Podcast. A Christian Exploration of
the Bahai Faith by Derek Cooper. This article was published
exclusively online for the Christian Research Journals, Volume forty eight,

(00:27):
number three in twenty twenty five. The Christian Research Journal
Reads Podcast presents audio versions of Christian Research Journal articles.
To read the full text of this article and its documentation,
go to equip dot org. That's e qu ip DOTRG.

Speaker 2 (00:52):
A Christian Exploration of the Bahai Faith. This article is
by Derek Cooper and is read by an automated voice.
The Bahi Faith, despite its relatively recent origins, has achieved
an impressive global reach, making it the second most widely
diffused religion in the world today, surpassed only by Christianity.
This remarkable spread has naturally sparked curiosity, prompting many to

(01:16):
seek a deeper understanding of its history and beliefs. As
Christopher Buck notes, given its impressive geographic spread as the
world's most widely diffused religion in the world today, second
only to Christianity, the Bahai Faith is increasingly attracting interest
At the heart of Bahai theology lies a profound emphasis

(01:36):
on unity and onness. Robert Stockman aptly summarizes this core principle.
The concepts of onness and unity are important starting points
in understanding the Bahai Faith. The faith has often been
summarized as teaching three honesses, the honess of God, of religion,
and of humanity. This foundational concept is expanded by shouv Offendi,

(01:59):
a key figure in the Bahai history, who express the
faith's view on divine revelation. Bahai's teachings resolve around the
fundamental principle that religious truth is not absolute but relative,
that divine revelation is progressive, not final, unequivocally and without
the least reservation. It proclaims all established religions to be

(02:19):
divine in origin, identical in their aims, complementary in their functions,
continuous in their purpose, indispensable in their value to mankind.
For those approaching the Bahai Faith from a Christian perspective,
understanding these core concepts and their historical context is crucial.
This article provides such an overview, tracing the Fate's origins,

(02:41):
exploring its major figures, outlining its beliefs and practices, examining
its contemporary global presence and drawing comparisons in contrasts with Christianity,
concluding with a Christian critique historical overview the emergence of
a global faith. The Bahai Faith emerged from a complex
tapestry of religious and historical developments in nineteenth century Pergia

(03:06):
modern day Iran. To understand its genesis, what might imagine
a series of nested dolls, each revealing a small or
more specific origin. The Bahai Faith arose out of the
Babi religion, which itself was a splinter faith from twelvever Sheism,
a majority branch within the minorities Shia denomination of the
world religion of Islam. While Shia Islam constitutes only about

(03:29):
fifteen percent of the global Muslim population, it is the
predominant Islamic denomination in Iran, the birthplace of the Bahai Faith.
The mid nineteenth century in Iran was a time of
heightened religious anticipation, particularly within twelve Vershism. This branch of
Islam believes in a succession of twelve Anams, direct descendants

(03:49):
of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ulli.
The twelfth Imam, known as Omadi or the Guided one
is believed to have gone into occultation or hiding in
the one hundred and forty four eighty and is expected
to return with power on the day of Judgment. This
belief fueled apocalyptic speculation, with many anticipating the Hiddenemom's return

(04:10):
around the millennium year of eighteen forty four. This is
not dissimilar to the heightened Christian expectations of Christ's final
return in the year one thousand and one thousand and
thirty three. A d amidst this fervent atmosphere, a heterodox
movement within Twelver Shi'a as long known as Shakhism, gained prominence.

(04:30):
Unlike mainstream Twelversheism, which expected a literal return of the
twelfth Imam, Shakhism maintained that the return would be spiritual
in nature. This movement provided the fertile ground from which
the Bobbi religion and subsequently the Bahai faith would grow,
with most early converts to the Bobbi religion coming directly
from Shakhism. As scholar Musion Moment observed, it is doubtful

(04:54):
if the bab would have attracted so many adherents if
it had not been for the shaky doctrines. In this way,
the Baha'i Faith did not emerge in a vacuum, but
from a specific historical and theological context of Shi'a Islam.
Its immediate and intense persecution, rooted in its perceived departure
from Islamic orthodoxy, forced its early avane to flee, which

(05:17):
contributed to its global diffusion major figures and their roles.
The Baha'i Faith's remarkable journey from a persecuted movement to
a global religion is intimately connected to its three most
significant pioneers in the administrative structures they established. The Babs
See Yet Ali Muhammad The Gateway to a New Era

(05:38):
eighteen nineteen to eighteen fifty See Yid ali Mohammad, as
revered as the fore ounner of the Bahati faith and
the founder of the Babi religion. The honorific Sea Yid
indicated his descent from the prophet Mohammed. Though not formally
trained as a religious cleric, he was regarded as a
holy man and experienced visions from an early age, a
phenomenon not entire fairly unusual within Irad's rich mystical, Sufi

(06:03):
and poetic traditions. The pivotal moment in Bahai history occurred
on May twenty two, eighteen forty four. Molla Hussain, a
shaky leader desperately searching for the promised One, was drawn
to the young Si Yid Aldi Muhammad in a profound encounter.
Hussain challenged Sei Yid Ali Mohammad in two ways, first
by asking him to explain a complex Islamic text, and

(06:26):
second by requesting an imprompt commentary on one of the
Quran's most difficult chapters. See Ali Mohammad succeeded in both,
leading Hussein to declare I sat and raptured by the
magic of his voice and the sweeping force of his revelation.
At that moment, See Yid Ali Muhammad declared himself Albab,
meaning the Gateway. He proclaimed this night, this very hour,

(06:48):
will in the days to come he celebrated as one
of the greatest and most significant of all times. He
further stated, truly, I am the Bab, the Gay of God,
and you are the Babo Bab, the gay to that gate,
prophesing that Hussaying would be the first of eighteen disciples
to independently seek and believe in him. Thus inaugurating his
mission to deliver the message of God and quicken the

(07:11):
souls of men. Initially, the Bab instructed his followers to
observe Sharia Islamic law, but he soon began proclaiming that
his new revelation transcended it, ushering in a new world order.
This directly conflicted with classical Islam, which held Mohammad as
the final prophet and rejected any subsequent revelations. Consequently, a

(07:33):
joint fatwah declared the Bobby movement to be heretical, as
scholar Katharina robed verenotes Muslim tradition has not accepted revelations
more recent than Islam, thus regarding Baha'i and Bobby Fates
as Muslim apostates. The Bab claimed not only to be
the successor to Mohammed, but also to Christ and other
significant religious figures, proclaiming himself as the long awaited Messiah.

(07:57):
As his followers grew, so did opposition. From eighteen forty
seven until his execution by firing squat in eighteen fifty,
the Bab was imprisoned. Despite this, he composed hundreds of
thousands of verses guiding his followers and prophesying the coming
of him whom God shall make manifest. Bahalla Mersa hussein Uli,

(08:17):
the promise won eighteen seventeen to eighteen ninety two. Born
into an aristocratic Iranian family, in eighteen seventeen, Mersa houssain
Uli became a follower of the Bab at the age
of twenty seven. His wealth and prominence initially shielded him
for persecution, and he traveled widely, making many converts. In
eighteen forty eight, he adopted the name Baha Glory, later

(08:41):
endorsed by the Bab as Bahala Glory of God. In
eighteen fifty two, Bahala was imprisoned under brutal conditions. He
received a vision marking him as the manifestation of God,
prophecied by the Bab. In eighteen sixty three, Bahala publicly
declared his identity as God's messenger to his followers in
an event known as the Declaration in Ridvan, marking the

(09:03):
official beginning of the Bahai faith. He made three key claims.
The Bahati faith would not use violence, he would be
the last manifestation of God for a thousand years, and
his message was blessed and would expand. Bahala spent the
rest of his life in exile, first in Turkey and
then in Acre, Israel, where he died in eighteen ninety two.

(09:25):
During this period, the Bobbi religion transformed into the global
Baha'i faith, headquartered in Israel. He wrote more than fifteen
thousand works regarded as divine revelation, and he claimed to
be the authoritative messenger of God, whom the people of
the world should obey. In fact, Bahala interpreted himself as
the messiah for six religious traditions Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Shia Islam,

(09:51):
sun Islam, and the Babi religion. For instance, he claimed
to be the pericle Jesus predicted in John fourteen to seventeen,
and even asserted that he was God, the Father, whose
son Jesus had concealed this truth because his followers were
not yet ready to receive it. Abdul Baha, the exemplar
and architect eighteen forty four to nineteen twenty one. Before

(10:13):
his death in eighteen ninety two, Bahaala explicitly appointed his
oldest son, Abdul Baha as his defenitive interpreter. Baja was
the first to hear his father's claims, and he knew
all the key influencers of the Bahai faith. While not
a manifestation of God like his father or the bab
Abdul Baha was a capable ambassador for the faith. He

(10:35):
traveled throughout the Middle East, Europe, and North America, articulating
the Bahai vision of solving global ills and skillfully answering
questions about God, prophets and the relationship between Bahai and
other religions. Show the Offendi the Guardian of the Faith
eighteen ninety seven to nineteen fifty seven. Abdul Baha appointed

(10:57):
his oldest grandson, show the Offendi as the guardian of
the Bahai Faith before his death in nineteen twenty one.
Affendi's leadership marked a significant transition for the Bahai Faith.
The crumbling Ottoman Empire, which had persecuted the Bahais, was
replaced by the British, who were friendly toward the religion,
allowing it to expand. Afendi capitalized on this, expanding and

(11:19):
beautifying the Baha'i World Center in Haifa, Israel, making it
an international destination. A polyglot, he translated key Baha'i writings
into European languages crucial for the faith's global expansion. Lacking
the magnetic personality of his predecessors, Offendi led, through his
strengths in writing, translation, administration, and institution building the Universal

(11:43):
House of Justice guiding the global community nineteen sixty three present.
When Shovi Offendi died unexpectedly in nineteen fifty seven, he
had established the institutional structures that continue to characterize the
Bahai Faith today. These structures, rather than a saining authoritative individual,
now provide leadership at local, national, and international levels. At

(12:06):
the local level, each Bahai community is guided by a
local spiritual assembly of nine elected members who oversee congregational
life and outreach nationally. Offendee call for national spiritual assemblies,
also comprising nine elected members, whose crucial role includes electing
members to the highest international body. At the international level,

(12:28):
the role of the Universal House of Justice was expanded
an institution created by Bahalla but whose members had not
yet been elected. Since nineteen sixty three, the Bahai Faith
has been officially led by nine members elected every five years.
Headquartered in Hifa, Israel, the Universal House of Justice functions
as a supreme court for all matters of Bahai doctrine.

(12:50):
And practice. One of its significant contributions is the distribution
and publication of Bajai writings. A notable document, the Promise
of World Peace, written in nineteen eighty five, outlines the
Bahai Faith's primary aim achieving world peace. This goal, far
beyond merely ending war, requires resolving issues such as discrimination, racism, prejudice,

(13:14):
child exploitation, world hunger, opposition to technology and science, socioeconomic disparity,
unbridled nationalism, religious strife, oppression of women, lack of universal education,
and the absence of an international language. Thus, what began
as a small movement in nineteenth century Persia has evolved

(13:34):
into a global religion advocating a new social order based
on active, mutual and joint engagement for planetary transformation, core beliefs,
and sacred texts. The Bahai faith is built upon a
distinct set of theological principles articulated through an extensive corpus
of sacred and authoritative writings. For instance, at the heart

(13:57):
of Bahai belief are the three monesses. First is the
honess of God. Bahais believe in one, incomparable, eternal, all powerful,
all knowing, and all loving God, who is the sole
creator and sustainer of the universe. This God is transcendent
and unknowable in his essence, yet he reveals himself to

(14:18):
humanity through so called manifestations. Second is the honest of religion.
This is perhaps the most distinctive Baha'i belief. It states
that religious truth is not absolute but relative, and divine
revelation is progressive, not final. All established religions are considered
divine in origin, identical in their aims, complementary in their functions,

(14:41):
continuous in their purpose, and indispensable to humanity. God sends
a series of divine messengers, for example, Abraham, Moses, Zoraster, Buddha, Krishna, Jesus, Mohammad,
the Bab, and Mahala, who progressively revealed God's will and
teachings according to humanities capacity. Each manifestation brings a fuller

(15:03):
measure of truth suitable for their time, building upon and
sometimes superseding previous dispensations. Third is the honess of humanity.
This principle emphasizes the fundamental unity of the human race,
transcending all racial, national, gender, and religious divisions. Baha Is
believed that humanity has reached a stage of maturity where

(15:26):
its inherent honess must be recognized and actualized. This calls
for eliminating all forms of prejudice, promoting the equality of
men and women, ensuring universal education, and establishing an international
language to foster global understanding. Sacred texts. The Bahai faith
places immense importance on the written word, with its sacred

(15:48):
texts being the direct revelations of the Bab and Mahala.
Unlike many religions where oral traditions preceded written scriptures, Bahai
revelation was primarily written down by the manifestations of the naves.
The corpus is vast, encompassing tens of thousands of documents,
mostly in Arabic and Pharsi, but also in Turkish, English
and French. These include poems, treatises, manuals, laws, instructions, and

(16:14):
numerous letters, many of which are very lengthy. The foundational
books include the writings of the four earliest leaders, the Bab, Bahaala,
Abdul Baha, and show the Offendi. However, only the writings
of the Bab in Thehalala are considered sacred and divinely inspired.
Those of Abdul Baha and Show the Efendi are authoritative

(16:35):
but not of divine origin. Key writings of the Bab
classified by scholar Naiders say a d into interpretive, philosophical,
and legislative stages. Often offer interpretations of the Qur'an mirroring
Jesus interpretations of the Hebrew Bible. A pivotal work is
the k Lum Alasma, also known as Ta Hsierri so

(17:00):
few Ria Yusuf, written in eighteen forty four. Modeled after
the Qoran, with one hundred and fourteen chapters, this book
is where the Bab first declared himself all Bob and
the Promised One, articulating the principle of progressive revelation and
disclosing his identity as well as that of the next manifestation.
Muhala Bahala's writings are equally extensive, with the key Todd

(17:25):
b I A. H. K. Doss, the Most Holy Book
being his primary book of laws. His other works, such
as Seven Valleys and Four Valleys, delve into mystical things,
Bahai practices and community life. Bahi practices are designed to
foster individual spiritual growth and contribute to the collective goal

(17:45):
of world unity and peace. Unlike many religions, the Bahai
faith does not have a clergy or professional priesthood. Instead,
its administration is run by elected bodies at various levels.
As discussed previously, Individual practices. Individual BAHAs are encouraged to
cultivate a deep personal relationship with God through the following practices.

(18:09):
Daily prayers. Bahadist choose one of three prayers to recite daily,
emphasizing devotion and connection with God. Fasting, a nineteen day
fast is observed annually in March, during which time baha
is abstained from food and drink from sunrise to sunset,
similar to Ramavin in Is law. This period is for

(18:30):
spiritual reflection and renewal. Study. Bahaias are encouraged to meditate
and study the sacred Baha'i writings discussed previously. Gathering Bahayas
are encouraged to congregate together, but this most often takes
place within the home. There are very few public buildings.
Service a fundamental aspect of Bahai life is active service

(18:53):
to humanity, seen as a form of worship and a
means of contributing to the betterment of the world. Ethical living.
The Highest adhere to a strict moral code that includes
prohibitions against drugs and alcohol, gambling, and gossip. Emphasis is
placed on honesty, trustworthiness, chastity, and purity of heart investigation

(19:15):
of truth. Bahadists are enjoined to independently investigate truth rather
than blindly following tradition or authority. Bahati today a global presence.
From its Messiah based beginnings in the mid nineteenth century,
the Bahai faith has experienced remarkable growth and diffusion. As
of recent estimates, the Bahai faith has approximately seven to

(19:38):
eight million adherents worldwide, making it one of the fastest
growing religions in terms of proportional increase in geographic spread.
This global presence is very diverse. The Bahati community actively
promotes unity and diversity, attracting followers from all racial, ethnic,
and socioeconomic backgrounds. In fact, this commitment to racial and

(20:00):
ethnic unity is a hallmark of the Baha'i community, reflecting
its core principle of the hodness of humanity. Through its
various institutions and the efforts of individual bahaias, it engages
in activities aimed at promoting interfaith dialogue, social and economic development,
gender equality, human rights afficacy, and universal education. Similarities in

(20:25):
differences with Christianity, a comparative luck for Christians seeking to
understand the Bahai faith, it is helpful to explore points
of similarity in difference. While both traditions share common ground
in their moral teachings and belief in divine revelation, there
are fundamental theological distinctions. Let's start with the similarities. Christians

(20:47):
share belief in monotheism with Bahais, although Bahaas affirm different
manifestations of the Godhead that do uphold belief in one God. Similarly,
both Christians and Bahaas do believe that this God has
sent messengers throughout history. Bahadis include Jesus among these manifestations,
while Christians of course recognize Jesus as the unique son

(21:09):
of God who has no rivals. In this way, both
religions acknowledge a progressive unfolding of God's plan through history,
commonly referred to as progressive revelation. However, the nature and
finality of that progression is quite different, given that Christians
do not recognize any definitive revelation after the life, death,
and resurrection of Jesus Christ. In terms of morality, both

(21:33):
faiths stress the importance of individual spiritual growth, ethical conduct, love, service, justice,
and the cultivation of virtues. There are However, many important
differences between Christianity and the Baha'i faith. To begin with,
Bahadists differ in their understanding of the Godhead. For instance,
the concept of the Trinity, a core tenetive Christianity, is

(21:56):
rejected among Bahadis as compromising God's unity. Next, the nature
of Christ is understood differently. Although Jesus is revere is
a manifestation of God in a long line of messengers,
he is not seen as uniquely divine with the son
of God in the Christian sense. In Christianity, for example,
Jesus Christ is believed to be the unique son of God,

(22:19):
truly God and truly man, the second person of the Trinity.
His deity, virgin birth, sinless life, atoning, death, bodily resurrection,
and ascension into Heaven are foundational to Christian beliefs. Next
are items related to atonement and salvation. In the Bahai faith,
salvation is understood primarily as spiritual progress and development through

(22:43):
obedience to God's laws and the teachings of the Manifestations.
There is no concept of atonement for sin through a
sacrificial death. In historic Christianity, by contrast, salvation is understood
as a gift of God's grace received through faith in
Jesus Christ's sacrifice death on the Cross, which atoned for
humanity sin. This salvation is not earned by works or

(23:05):
human achievement. There are additional differences between the two religions.
For instance, while respecting previous scriptures, Bahadis believe that the
revelations of the bab and Bahaala supersede and complete earlier dispensations,
making the Baha'i writings the most authoritative and current divine guidance.
Previous revelations are seen as relative and incomplete for the

(23:28):
current age. This is rejected among Christians, who regard the
Bible as the complete and infallible revelation of God's will
and redemptive plan for the world, culminating in Jesus Christ.
No further divine revelation can supersede or add to core
truths of the Bible. Also, in terms of the last days,
Bahadus understand the return of Christ as a spiritual return

(23:51):
fulfilled in the person of Bahabla, who brought a new
revelation for a new age. In contrast, within Christianity, the
return of Christ is understood as a physical, bodily return
of the Lord Jesus, at which time he will establish
his kingdom and judge the earth. Finally, when it comes
to the figure of Mohammed, BAHAs regard him as a
manifestation of God who brought revelation to the people in

(24:13):
the form of the Koran. By contrast, Christians do not
consider Mohammed a God sent messenger, and they reject the
Koran as divine revelation. A Christian apologetic critique of the
Bahai Faith. When all is said and done, the Bahai
faith presents a number of fundamental theological departures that render
it irreconcivable with Orthodox Christianity. While we can appreciate Bahai

(24:37):
ideals of peace, unity, and moral living, its core claims
about God, Christ and revelations stand in stark contrast to
Biblical truth. The most significant point of divergence lies in
the Bahai understanding of God and the nature of Jesus Christ.
Bahadi's strict monotheism explicitly rejects the Christian doctrine of the trinity.

(24:58):
For Christians, the trinity is not merely a theological abstraction,
but is essential to understanding God's very nature and the
means of our salvation. If God is not trained, then
the Christian understanding of God's self existence, his eternal love,
and the very possibility of atonement through a divine son
is undermined. In addition, the Baha'i view of Jesus as

(25:21):
merely a manifestation of God equal in station to other
prophets and to the bab in Bahallah undercuts Christ's deity
and his role in the Godhead. The Bible presents Jesus
as the unique son of God, truly God and truly
human John one to one, fourteen, Colossians two, nine, he
Brews one to one three. His virgin birth, sinless life, miracles, atoning, death,

(25:46):
and bodily resurrection are not merely exemplary actions, but divinects
central to God's redemptive plan. The baha claimed that Bahallah
is the return of Christ or even God the Father
whose son Jesus had conceald, is a theological distortion that
contradicts Biblical Christology and the consistent testimony of scripture regarding

(26:07):
jesus identity and future return. Another critical difference lies in
the understanding of humanity's problem in God's solution. The Baha'i
faith emphasizes spiritual development, obedience to laws, and the cultivation
of virtues as the path to human perfection and salvation.
While these are commendable aspirations, they differ from the Christian

(26:29):
doctrine of salvation. Christianity teaches that humanity's fundamental problem is sin,
a rebellion against a holy God, which results in spiritual
death and separation from Him Romans three twenty three, six
twenty three. This sin problem requires a divine solution atonement.
Jesus Christ, being God incarnate, lived a perfect life, died

(26:52):
a sacrificial death on the cross, and rose again, thereby
atoning for humanity's sins and offering reconciliation with God. High system.
By lacking a concept of atonement for sin, presents a
different path to spiritual truth that does not address the
Biblical understanding of humanity's fallen state and the necessity of
divine redemption. Finally, while the Bahai Faith champion's unity and inclusivity,

(27:17):
promoting the honess of humanity and religion, its claims about
the bab in the Hall of being the latest and
greatest manifestations, and the Bahai Faith being the culmination of
religious truth, inherently create a new form of exclusivity. If
baha' Lah is the promised one for all religions and
his teachings are the most complete in current revelation, then

(27:38):
adherence to baha He becomes the ultimate path to truth
and unity. From a Christian perspective, While God desires all
people to be saved one Timothy two to four, the
Bible presents Jesus Christ as the only way to God,
John fourteen to six, Acts four twelve. This is not
an arbitrary exclusivism, but stems from the un unique identity

(28:00):
of Jesus as the incarnate God and the one who
offered himself as the atoning sacrifice. This exclusivity is a central,
non negotiable aspect of Christian faith, which stands in opposition
to the Bahai concept of multiple equally valid paths culminating
in the Bahai Faith. In closing. While the Bahai Faith
offers appealing ideals of peace, unity and moral living, its

(28:24):
foundational theological claims about the nature of God, the identity
and role of Jesus Christ, the finality of divine revelation,
and the means of salvation are irreconcilable with Orthodox Christian doctrine. Christians, therefore,
while respecting Bahai's as individuals and commending those values shared
with the Christian tradition, must critically evaluate the Bahai faith

(28:47):
theological claims against the unchanging truth of the Bible and
the unique person and work of Jesus Christ.

Speaker 1 (28:55):
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