Napoleon Bonaparte

Napoleon Bonaparte

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Episode Transcript

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Napoleon Bonaparte, later known by hisregnal name Napoleon the First, was a
French military commander and political leader whorose to prominence during the French Revolution and
led successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars. He was the leader of the French
Republic as First Consul from seventeen ninetynine to eighteen oh four, then of
the French Empire as Emperor of theFrench from eighteen oh four until eighteen fourteen,

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and briefly again in eighteen fifteen.His political and cultural legacy endures as
a celebrated and controversial leader, heinitiated many enduring reforms, but has been
criticized for his authoritarian rule. Heis considered one of the greatest military commanders
in history, although historians still debatewhether he was responsible for the Napoleonic Wars,

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in which between three and six millionpeople died. Napoleon was born on
the island of Corsica into a familydescending from Italian nobility. He was resentful
of the French monarchy and supported theFrench Revlation in seventeen eighty nine while serving
in the French Army, trying tospread its ideals to his native Corsica.

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He rose rapidly in the ranks aftersaving the governing French directory by firing on
Royalist insurgents. In seventeen ninety six, he began a military campaign against the
Austrians and their Italian allies, scoringdecisive victories and became a national hero.
Two years later, he led amilitary expedition to Egypt that served as a
springboard to political power. He engineereda coup in November seventeen ninety nine and

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became first Consul of the Republic ineighteen o four. To consolidate and expand
his power, he crowned himself Emperorof the French. Differences with the United
Kingdom meant France faced the War ofthe Third Coalition. By eighteen oh five,
Napoleon shattered this coalition with victories inthe Olm Campaign and at the Battle

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of Austerlitz, which led to thedissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. In
eighteen o six, the Fourth Coalitiontook up arms against him. Poleon defeated
Prussia at the Battles of Jena andAuerstt, marched the Grand Army into Eastern
Europe, and defeated the Russians inJune eighteen oh seven at Friedland, forcing
the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalitionto accept the Treaties of Tilsit. Two

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years later, the Austrians challenged theFrench again during the War of the Fifth
Coalition, but Napoleon solidified his gripover Europe after triumphing at the Battle of
Wagram. Hoping to extend the continentalsystem his embargo against Britain, Napoleon invaded
the Iberian Peninsula and declared his brotherJoseph the King of Spain. In eighteen
oh eight, the Spanish and thePortuguese revolted in the Peninsular War, aided

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by a British army, culminating indefeat for Napoleon's marshals. Napoleon launched an
invasion of Russia in the summer ofeighteen twelve. The resulting campaign witnessed the
catastrophic retreat of Napoleon's Grande Army.In eighteen thirteen, Prussia and Austria joined
Russian forces in a sixth Coalition againstFrance, resulting in a large coalition army

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defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig. The coalition invaded France and captured Paris,
forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April eighteenfourteen. He was exiled to the
island of Elba between Corsica and Italy. In France, the Bourbons were restored
to power. Napoleon escaped in Februaryeighteen fifteen and took control of France.
The Allies responded by forming a SeventhCoalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle

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of Waterloo in June eighteen fifteen.The British exiled him to the remote island
of Saint Helena in the Atlantic,where he died in eighteen twenty one at
the age of fifty one. Napoleonhad a lasting impact on the world,
bringing modernizing reforms to France and WesternEurope and stimulating the development of nation states.
He also sold the Louisiana territory tothe United States in eighteen oh three,

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doubling the size of the United States. However, his exploitation of conquered
territories mixed record on civil rights,reintroduction of slavery in France's colonies, and
repression of the Haitian Revolution are controversialin adverse affect his reputation. Napoleon's father,
Carlo Buonaparte fought for Corsican independence underPasquale Pauli, but after their defeat,

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he eventually became the island's representative tothe Court of Louis sixteenth Napoleon's family
was of Italian origin. His paternalancestors, the Buonapartes, descended from a
minor Tuscan noble family that emigrated toCorsica in the sixteenth century, and his
maternal ancestors, the Ramolinos, descendedfrom a minor Genoese noble family. His

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parents, Carlo Maria Bonapartei and MariaLetitia Ramolino, maintained an ancestral home called
Casa Bonaparte, known nowadays as MaisonBonapartei in Ajaccio. Napoleon was born there
on fifteen August seventeen sixty nine.He was the family's fourth child and third
son. He had an elder brother, Joseph, and younger siblings Lucian Elisa,
Louis, Pauline, Caroline, andJerome. Napoleon was baptized as a

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Catholic under the name Napoleone. Inhis youth, his name was also spelled
as Nebuliona Nebuli, Napoleone and Napuleone. Napoleon was born one year after the
Republic of Genoa seated Corsica to France. The States sold sovereign rits a year
before his birth, and the islandwas conquered by France during the year of
his birth. It was formally incorporatedas a province in seventeen seventy, after

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five hundred years under Genoese rule.In fourteen years of independence, Napoleon's parents
joined the Corsican resistance and fought againstthe French to maintain independence, even when
Maria was pregnant with him. Hisfather, Carlo, was an attorney who
had supported and actively collaborated with patriotPasquale Pauli during the Corsican War of Independence
against France. After the Corsican defeatat Ponteneouvou in seventeen sixty nine and Paul's

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exile in Britain, Carlo began workingfor the new French government, and in
seventeen seventy seven was named representative ofthe island to the Court of Louis sixteenth.
The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood washis mother, whose firm discipline restrained
a rambunctious child. Later in life, Napoleon said, the future destiny of
the church is always the work ofthe mother. His maternal grandmother had married

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into the Swiss Feesch family in hersecond marriage, and Napoleon's uncle, the
Cardinal Joseph Fesch, fulfilled a roleas protector of the Buonaparte family for some
years. Napoleon's noble, moderately affluentbackground afforded him greater opportunities to study than
were available to a typical Corsican ofthe time. When he turned nine years

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old, he moved to the Frenchmainland and enrolled at a religious school in
Hoteon in January seventeen seventy nine.In May, he transferred with a scholarship
to a military academy at Brienne leChateau. In his youth, he was
an outspoken Corsican nationalist and supported thestate's independence from France. Like many Corsicans,
Napoleon spoke and read Corsican as hismother tongue, an Italian as the

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official language of Corsica. He beganlearning French in school at the age of
around ten. Although he became fluentin French, he spoke with a distinctive
Corsican accent, and never learned tospell in friends. Consequently, Napoleon was
routinely bullied by his peers for hisaccent, birthplace, short stature, mannerisms,

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and inability to speak French. Quickly, he became reserved and melancholy,
applying himself to reading. An examinerobserved that Napoleon has always been distinguished for
his application in mathematics. He isfairly well acquainted with history and geography.
This boy would make an excellent sailor. One story told of Napoleon at the

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school is that he led junior studentsto victory against senior students in a snowball
fight, showing his leadership abilities.In early adulthood, Napoleon briefly intended to
become a writer. He authored ahistory of Corsica and a romantic novella.
On completion of his studies at Briennein seventeen eighty four, Napoleon was admitted
to the Ecole Militaire in Paris.He trained to become an artillery officer,

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and when his father's death reduced hisincome, was forced to complete the two
year course in one year. Hewas the first Corsican to graduate from the
Ecole Militaire. He was examined bythe famed scientist Pierre Simon la Place.
Early career, Bonaparte aged twenty threeas lieutenant colonel of a battalion of Corsican
Republican volunteers. Portrait by Henri Phelipe'sEmmanuel Philippoteaux. Upon graduating in September seventeen

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eighty five, Bonaparte was commissioned asecond lieutenant in La Fere Artillery Regiment.
He served in Valence in Ozan untilafter the outbreak of the French Revolution in
seventeen eighty nine. Bonaparte was afervent Corsican nationalist. During this period.
He asked for leave to join hismentor, Pasquale Pauli, when Pauli was
allowed to return to Corsica by theNational Assembly, but Pauli had no sympathy

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for Napoleon, as he deemed hisfather a traitor for having deserted the cause
of Corsican independence. He spent theearly years of the revolution in Corsica fighting
in a complex three way struggle amongroyalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists.
Napoleon embraced the idea of the revolutionbecoming a supporter of the Jacobins and joining

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the pro French Corsican Republicans who opposedPauli's policy and his aspirations to secede.
He was given command over a battalionof volunteers and promoted to captain in the
regular army in seventeen ninety two,despite exceeding his leave of absence and leading
a riot against French troops. WhenCorsica declared formal secession from France and requested

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the protection of the British government,Napoleon and his commitment to the French Revolution
came into conflict with Pauli, whohad decided to sabotage the Corsican contribution to
the Expedition to Sardaine by preventing aFrench assault on the Sardinian island Las Madalena.
Bonaparte and his family were compelled toflee to Toulon on the French mainland
in June seventeen ninety three because ofthe split with Pauli. Although he was

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born Napoleone Bonaparte, it was afterthis that Napoleon began styling himself Napoleon Bonaparte.
His family did not drop the nameBuonaparte until seventeen ninety six. The
first known record of him signing hisname as Bonaparte was at the age of
twenty seven in seventeen ninety six.In July seventeen ninety three, Bonaparte published

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a pro republican pamphlet lesuper de BeaucaireSupper at Beaucaire, which gained him the
support of Augustin Robespierre, the youngerbrother of the revolutionary leader Maximilian Robespierre.
With the help of his fellow CorsicanAntoine christoph Salisetti, Bonaparte was appointed senior
gunner and artillery commander of the Republicanforces that arrived at Toulon on the eight

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September. He adopted a plan tocapture a hill where Republican guns could dominate
the city's harbor and force the Britishto evacuate. The assault on the position
led to the capture of the city, and during it Bonaparte was wounded in
the thigh. On the sixteenth ofDecember, catching the attention of the Committee
of Public Safety, he was putin charge of the artillery of France's Army

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of Italy. On twenty second December, he was on his way to a
new post in Nice, promoted fromcolonel to brigadier general at the age of
twenty four, he devised plans toattack the Kingdom of Sardinia as part of
France's campaign against the First Coalition.The French army carried out Bonaparte's plan in
the Battle of Sergio in April seventeenninety four, and then advanced to seize

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Ormia in the Mountains. From Mormia, it headed west to outflank the Austro
Sardinian positions around Sorgi. After thiscampaign, Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a
mission to the Republic of Genoa todetermine that country's intentions towards France. Some
contemporaries alleged that Bonaparte was put underhouse arrest at Nice for his association with

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the Robespierre following their fall in theThermidorian Reaction in July seventeen ninety four.
Bonaparte's secretary Bourienne, disputed the allegationin his memoirs. According to Bourienne,
jealousy was responsible between the Army ofthe Alps and the Army of Italy,
with whom Bonaparte was seconded at thetime. Bonaparte despatched an impassioned defense in

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a letter to the Commissar Salicetti andwas acquitted of any wrongdoing. He was
released within two weeks on twenty pointAugust, and due to his technical skills,
was asked to draw up plans toattack Italian positions in the context of
France's war with Austria. He alsotook part in an expedition to take back
Corsica from the British, but theFrench were repulsed by the British Royal Navy.

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By seventeen ninety five, Bonaparte hadbecome engaged to Desiree Clary, daughter
of Francois Clary. Desiree's sister,Julie Clarey, had married Bonaparte's brother Joseph.
In April seventeen ninety five, hewas assigned to the Army of the
West, which was engaged in thewar in the Vande, a civil war
and Royalist counter revolution in Van Day, a region in west central France on

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the Atlantic Ocean, as an infantrycommand. It was a demotion from artillery
general, for which the army alreadyhad a full quota and he pleaded poor
health to avoid the posting. Hewas moved to the Bureau of Topography of
the Committee of Public Safety. Hesought unsuccessfully to be transferred to co Constantinople
to offer his services to the Sultan. During this period he wrote the romantic

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novella Clisson e Eugenie, about asoldier and his lover, in a clear
parallel to Bonaparte's own relationship with Clary. On fifteen September, Bonaparte was removed
from the list of generals in regularservice for refusing to serve in the Vondei
campaign. He faced a difficult financialsituation and reduced career prospects. On thirty
October, royalists in Paris declared arebellion against the National Convention. Paul Barrats,

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a leader of the Thermidorian reaction,knew of Bonaparte's military exploits at Toulon
and gave him command of the improvisedforces in defense of the Convention in the
Tuileries Palace. Bonaparte had seen themassacre of the King's Swiss guard there three
years earlier, and realized that artillerywould be the key to its defense.
He ordered a young cavalry officer JoachimMurat to seize large cannons and use them

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to repel the attackers. On fifthof October seventeen ninety five, thirteenth in
Vendemi IV in the French Republican Calendarony, four hundred royalists died and the
rest fled. He cleared the streetswith a whiff of grape shot. According
to nineteenth century historian Thomas Carlyle inThe French Revolution A History, the defeat

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of the Royalist insurrection extinguished the threatto the Convention and earned Bonaparte's sudden fame,
wealth, and the patronage of thenew government. The directory Murra married
one of Bonaparte's sisters. He alsoserved as one of Bonaparte's generals. Bonaparte
was promoted to Commander of the Interiorand given command of the Army of Italy.

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Within weeks. He was romantically involvedwith Josephine de Beauharney, the former
mistress of Barras. The couple marriedon nine March seventeen ninety six in a
civil ceremony. Two days after themarriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take command
of the Army of Italy. Heimmediately went on the offensive, hoping to
defeat the forces of Kingdom of Sardiniaseventeen twenty eighteen sixty one, before where

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their Austrian allies could intervene. Ina series of rapid victories during the Montinaute
Campaign, he knocked Piedmont out ofthe war in two weeks. The French
then focused on the Austrians for theremainder of the war, the highlight of
which became the protracted struggle for Mantua. The Austrians launched a series of offensives
against the French to break the siege, but Bonaparte defeated every relief effort,

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winning the battles of Castilione, Bassano, Arcole and Rivoli. The decisive French
triumph at Rivilli in January seventeen ninetyseven led to the collapse of the Austrian
position in Italy. At Rivoli,the Austrians lost up to fourteen thousand men,
while the French lost about five thousand. The next phase of the campaign
featured the French invasion of the Habsburgheartlands. French forces in southern Germany had

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been defeated by the Archduke Charles inseventeen ninety six, but Charles withdrew his
forces to protect Vienna after learning ofBonaparte's assault. In the first encounter between
the two, Bonaparte pushed Charles backand advanced deep into Austrian territory after winning
the Battle of Tarvis in March seventeenninety seven. The Austrians were alarmed by

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the French thrust that reached all theway to Lobin, about one hundred kilometers
from Vienna, and decided to suefor peace. The Treaty of Lobin,
followed by the more comprehensive Treaty ofCampoformio, gave France control of most of
northern Italy and the Low countries,and a secret clause promised the Republic of
Venice to Austria. Bonaparte marched onVenice and forced its surrender, ending one

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thy two hundred years of Venetian independence. He authorized the French to loot treasures
such as the horses of Saint Mark. On the journey, Bonaparte conversed much
about the warriors of Antiquity, especiallyAlexander, Caesar, Scipio and Hannibal.
He studied their strategy and combined itwith his own. To a question from
Bourienne asking whether he preferred Alexander orCaesar, Bonaparte said that he placed Alexander

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in the first rank, the mainreason being his campaign in Asia. His
application of conventional military ideas to realworld situations enabled his military triumphs, such
as creative use of artillery as amobile force to support his infantry. He
said later in life, I havefought sixty battles, and I have learned

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nothing which I did not know atthe beginning. Look at Caesar. He
fought the first like the last.Bonaparte could win battles by concealing troop deployments
and concentrating his forces on the hingeof an enemy's weakened front. If he
could not use his favorite envelopment strategy, he would take up the central position
and attack two cooperating forces at theirhinge, swing round to fight one until

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it fled, then turned to facethe other. In this Italian campaign,
Bonaparte's army captured one hundred and fiftythousand prisoners, five hundred forty cannons,
and one hundred and seventy standards.The French army fought sixty seven actions and
won eighteen pitched battles through superior artillerytechnology and Bonaparte's tactics. During the campaign,
Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He founded two newspapers, one

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for the troops in his army andone for circulation in France. The Royalists
attacked him for looting Italy and warnedthat he might become a dictator. Bonaparte's
forces extracted and estimated forty five milliondollars in funds from Italy. During their
campaign, there another twelve million dollarsin precious medals and jewels. His forces
confiscated more than three hundred priceless paintingsand sculptures. Bonaparte sent General Pierre au

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Girout to Paris to lead a coupdettas and purge the Royalists on fourth September,
the Coup of eighteenth Fruc de d'Or. This left Barras and his Republican
allies in control again, but dependedupon Bonaparte, who proceeded to peace negotiations
with Austria. These negotiations resulted inthe Treaty of Campo Formio. Bonaparte returned

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to Paris on the fifth December seventeenninety seven. As a hero, he
met Talleyrand, France's new foreign minister, who served in the same capacity for
Emperor Napoleon, and they began toprepare to invade Britain. Two months of
planning, Bonaparte decided that France's navalstrength was not yet sufficient to confront the
British Royal Navy. He decided ona military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby

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undermine Britain's access to its trade interestsin India. Bonaparte wished to establish a
French presence in the Middle East andjoined forces with Tipu Sultan, the Sultan
of Mysore, an enemy of theBritish. Bonaparte assured the Directory that as
soon as he had conquered Egypt,he will establish relations with the Indian princes
and together with them attack the Englishin their possessions. The Directory agreed in

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order to secure a trade route tothe Indian subcontinent. In May seventeen ninety
eight, Bonaparte was elected a memberof the French Academy of Sciences. His
Egyptian expedition included a group of onehundred and sixty seven scientists, with mathematicians,
naturalists, chemists, and geodicists amongthem. Their discoveries included the Rosetta
stone, and their work was publishedin the description de Legypt in eighteen o

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nine. En route to Egypt,Bonaparte reached Malta on ninth June seventeen ninety
eight, then controlled by the KnightsHospitaller. Grand Master Ferdinand von Humpesch Zubolheim
surrendered after token resistance, and Bonapartecaptured an important naval base with the loss
of only three men. Bonaparte andhis expedition eluded pursuit by the Royal Navy

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and landed at Alexandria on first July. He fought the Battle of schubra Kit
against the Mamluks, Egypt's ruling militarycaste. This helped the French practice their
defensive tactic for the Battle of thePyramids on twenty one July about twenty four
calendar fifteen. From the Pyramids,Bonaparte's forces of twenty five thousand roughly equaled
those of the Mamlux Egyptian cavalry.Twenty nine French and approximately two thousand Egyptians

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were killed. The victory boosted theFrench army's morale. On first August seventeen
ninety eight, the British fleet underSir Horatio Nelson, captured or destroyed all
but two vessels of the French fleetin the Battle of the Nile, preventing
Bonaparte from strengthening the French position inthe Mediterranean. His army had succeeded in
a temporary increase of French power inEgypt, though it faced repeated uprisings.

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In early seventeen ninety nine, hemoved an army into the Ottoman province of
Damascus, Syria, and Galilee.Bonaparte led these thirteen thousand French soldiers in
the conquest of the coastal towns ofArisch, Gaza, Jaffa, and Haifa.
The attack on Jaffa was particularly brutal. Bonaparte discovered that many of the

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defenders were former prisoners of war ostensiblyon parole, so he ordered the garrison
and some one thousand, five hundred, five thousand prisoners to be executed by
bayonet or drowning. Men, womenand children were robbed and murdered for three
days. Bonaparte began with an armyof thirteen thousand men, one five hundred
were reported missing, one to onehundred died in combat, and thousands perished

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from disease, mostly bubonic plague.He failed to reduce the fortress of Acres,
so he marched his army back toEgypt in May. To speed the
retreat, Bonaparte ordered plague stricken mento be poisoned with opium. The number
who died remains disputed, ranging fromthirty to five eighty. He also brought
out one thousand wounded men back inEgypt. On twenty Feve July, Bonaparte

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defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abuquir. While in Egypt, Bonaparte stayed informed
of European affairs. He learned thatFrance had suffered a series of defeats in
the War of the Second Coalition.On twenty four August seventeen ninety nine,
fearing that the Republic's future was indoubt, he took advantage of the temporary
departure of British ships from French coastalports and set sail for France, despite

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the fact that he had received noexplicit orders from Paris. The army was
left in the charge of Jean BaptisteClebert. Unknown to Buonaparte, the Directory
had sent him orders to return toward off possible invasions of French soil,
but poor lines of communication prevented thedelivery of these messages. By the time
that he reached Paris in October,France's situation had been improved by a series

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of victories. The Republic, however, was bankrupt, and the ineffective Directory
was unpopular with the French population.The Directory discussed Bonaparte's desertion, but was
too weak to punish him. Despitethe failures in Egypt, Bonaparte returned to
a hero's welcome. He drew togetheran alliance with Director Emmanuel Joseph Cias his
brother Lucian, speaker of the Councilof five hundred, Roger Ducos, Director

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Joseph Fouche and talleyran, and theyoverthrew the Directory by a coup deetats on
nine thous November seventeen ninety nine,the eighteenth Brumaire, according to the Revolutionary
Calendar, closing down the Council offive hundred. Napoleon became first consul for
ten years, with two consuls appointedby him who had consultative voices. Only

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his power was confirmed by the newConstitution of the Year eighth, originally devised
by Cis to give Napoleon a minorrole, but rewritten by Napoleon and accepted
by direct popular vote three thousand thousandin favor one thousand, hundred and sixty
seven opposed. The constitution preserved theappearance of a republic, but in reality
established a dictatorship. Bonaparte established apolitical system that historian Martin Lyons called dictatorship

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by plebiscite. Worried by the democraticforces unleashed by the Revolution, but unwilling
to ignore them entirely, Bonaparte resortedto regular electoral consultations with the French people.
On his road to imperial power.He drafted the Constitution of the Year
the eighth and secured his own electionas first Consul, taking up residence at

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the Tuileries. The constitution was approvedin a rigged plebiscite held the following January,
with ninety nine point ninety four percentofficially listed as voting yes. Napoleon's
brother Lucienne, had falsified the returnsto show that three million people had participated
in the plebiscite. The real numberwas one point five me million. Political

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observers at the time assumed the eligibleFrench voting public numbered about five million people,
so the regime artificially doubled the participationrate to indicate popular enthusiasm for the
Consulate. In the first few monthsof the Consulate, with war in Europe
still raging an internal instability still plaguingthe country, Bonaparte's grip on power remained

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very tenuous. In the spring ofeighteen hundred, Bonaparte and his troops crossed
the Swiss Alps into Italy, aimingto surprise the Austrian armies that had reoccupied
the peninsula when Bonaparte was still inEgypt. After a difficult crossing over the
Alps, the French army entered theplains of northern Italy virtually unopposed. While
one French army approached from the north, the Austrians were busy with another stationed

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in Genoa, which was besieged bya substantial force. The fierce resistance of
this French army under Andre Massena,gave the northern force some time to carry
out their operations with little interference.After spending several days looking for each other,
the two armies collided at the Battleof Marengo on fourteenth June. General
Melas had a numerical advantage, fieldingabout thirty thousand Austrian soldiers, while Bonaparte

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commanded twenty four thousand French troops.The battle began favorably for the Austrians,
as their initial attack surprised the Frenchand gradually drove them back. Melas stated
that he had won the battle andretired to his headquarters around three PM,
leaving his subordinates in charge of pursuingthe French. The French lines never broke
during their tactical retreat. Bonaparte constantlyrode out among the troops, urging them

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to stand and fight. The Battleof Marengo was Napoleon's first major victory as
head of state. Late in theafternoon, a full division under Dessay arrived
on the field and reversed the tideof the battle. A series of artillery
barrages and cavalry charges decimated the Austrianarmy, which fled over the Bormida River

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back to Alessandria, leaving behind fourteenthousand casualties. The following day, the
Austrian army agreed to abandon northern Italyonce more with the Convention of Alessandria,
which granted them safe passage to friendlysoil in exchange for their fortresses throughout the
region. Although critics have blamed Bonapartefor several tactical mistakes preceding the battle,

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they have also praised his audacity forselecting a risky campaign strategy, choosing to
invade the Italian peninsula from the northwhen the vast majority of French invasions came
from the west, near or alongthe coastline. As David G. Chandler
points out, Bonaparte spent almost ayear getting the Austrians out of Italy in
his first campaign in eighteen hundred,it took him only a month to achieve

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the same goal. German strategist andfield Marshal Alfred von Schlieffen concluded that Bonaparte
did not annihilate his enemy, buteliminated him and rendered him harmless while attaining
the object of the campaign, theconquest of North Italy. Bonaparte's triumph at
Marengo secured his political authority and boostedhis popularity back home, but it did

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not lead to an immediate peace.Bonaparte's brother Joseph led the complex negotiations in
Luneville and reported that Austria, emboldenedby British support, would not acknowledge the
new territory that France had acquired.As negotiations became increasingly fractious, Buonaparte gave
orders to his general Moreau to strikeAustria once more. Moreau and the French

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swept through Bavaria and scored an overwhelmingvictory at Hoenlanden in December eighteen hundred.
As a result, the Austrians capitulatedand signed the Treaty of Luneville in February
eighteen o one. The treaty reaffirmedand expanded earlier French gains at Campo Formio.
After a decade of constant warfare,France and Britain signed the Treaty of
Amiens in March eighteen o two,bringing the Revolutionary wars to an end.

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Amienn's called for the withdrawal of Britishtroops from recently conquered colonial territories, as
well as for assurances to curtail theexpansionary goals of the French Republic, with
Europe at peace and the economy recoveringBonaparte's popularity soared to its highest levels under
the Consulate, both domestically and abroad. In a new plebiscite during the spring
of eighteen o two, the Frenchpublic came out in huge numbers to approve

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a constitution that made the Consulate permanent, essentially elevating Bonaparte to dictator for life.
Whereas the plebiscite two years earlier hadbrought out one point five million people
to the polls, the new referendumenticed three point six million to go and
vote, seventy two percent of alleligible voters. There was no secret ballot

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in eighteen oh two, and fewpeople wanted to openly defy the regime.
The constitution gained approval with over ninetynine percent of the vote. His broad
powers were spelled out in the newconstitution Article one, The French people name,
and the Senate proclaims Napoleon Bonaparte firstConsul for life. After eighteen o

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two, he was generally referred toas Napoleon rather than Bonaparte. The eighteen
oh three Louisiana purchase totaled two thousand, forty five four one thousand eighty square
kilometers eight hundred and twenty seven thousand, eighty seven square miles, doubling the
size of the United States. Thebrief peace in Europe allowed Napoleon to focus
on French colonies abroad. San doMing had managed to acquire a high level

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of political autonomy during the Revolutionary Wars, with Toussain Louverture installing himself as de
facto dictator by eighteen oh one.Napoleon saw a chance to re establish control
over the colony when he signed theTreaty of Amien. In the eighteenth century,
San Doming had been France's most profitablecolony, producing more sugar than all
the British West Indies colonies combined.However, during the Revolution, the National

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Convention voted to abolish slavery. InFebruary seventeen ninety four, aware of the
expenses required to fund his wars inEurope, Napoleon made the decision to reinstate
slavery in all French Caribbean colonies.The seventeen ninety four decree had only affected
the colonies of San doming, Guadalupe, and Guyana, and did not take
effect in Mauritius, Runion, andMartinique, the last of which had been

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captured by the British and as suchremained unaffected by French law. In Guadeloupe,
slavery had been abolished and its banviolently enforced by Victor Huga against opposition
from slaveholders, thanks to the seventeenninety four law. However, when slavery
was reinstated in eighteen o two,a slave revolt broke out under the leadership
of Louis Delgre. The resulting Lawof twentieth May had the express purpose of

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reinstating slavery in Sando Ming, Guadaloupe, and French Guiana, and restored slavery
throughout most of the French colonial empireexcluding Sain Do Ming, for another half
a century, while the French Transatlanticslave trade continued for another twenty years.
Napoleon sent an expedition under his brotherin law, General Leclair to reassert control

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over San doming Although the French managedto capture Toussaint Louverture, the expedition failed
when high rates of disease crippled theFrench army, and Jean Jacques Dessaline won
a string of victories, first againstLeclaire and when he died from yellow fever,
then against Donatien Marie Joseph de Vimeu, Vicomte de Rochambeau, whom Napoleon
sent to relieve Leclaire with another twentythousand men. In May eighteen o three,

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Napoleon acknowledged defeat, and the lasteight thousand French troops left the island,
and the slaves proclaimed an independent republicthat they called Haiti in eighteen o
four. In the process, Dessoleinesbecame arguably the most successful military commander in
the struggle against Napoleonic France. Seeingthe failure of his efforts in Haiti,

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Napoleon decided in eighteen o three tosell the Louisiana territory to the United States,
instantly doubling the size of the US. The selling price in the
Louisiana purchase was less than three centsper acre, a total of fifteen million
dollars. The peace with Britain provedto be uneasy and controversial. Britain did
not evacuate Malta as promised, andprotested against Bonaparte's annexation of Piedmont and his

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active mediation, which established a newSwiss Confederation. Neither of these territories were
covered by Amiennes, but they flametensions significantly. The dispute culminated in a
declaration of war by Britain in Mayeighteen o three. Napoleon responded by reassembling
the invasion camp at Boulogne and declaringthat every British male between eighteen and sixty

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years old in France and its dependenciesto be arrested as a prisoner of war.
During the consulate, Napoleon faced severalRoyalist and Jacobin assassination plots, including
the Conspiration des Poignards dagger plot inOctober eighteen hundred and the plot of the
Rue san Niques, also known asthe Infernal Machine. Two months later.

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In January eighteen o four, hispolice uncovered an assassination plot against him that
involved Moreaux and which was ostensibly sponsoredby the Bourbon family, the former rulers
of France. On the advice ofTalleyran, Napoleon ordered the kidnapping of the
Duke of Enguian, violating the sovereigntyof Baden. The Duke was quickly executed
after a secret military trial, eventhough he had not been involved in the

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plot. Indian's execution infuriated royal courtsthroughout Europe, becoming one of the contributing
political factors for the outbreak of theNapoleonic Wars. To expand his power,
Napoleon used these assassination plots to justifythe creation of an imperial system based on
the Roman model. He believed thata Bourbon restoration would be more difficult if

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his family's succession was entrenched in theconstitution. Launching yet another referendum, Napoleon
was elected as Emperor of the Frenchby itally exceeding ninety nine percent. As
with the Life Consulate two years earlier, this referendum produced heavy participation, bringing
out almost three point six million votersto the Poles. A keen observer of

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Bonaparte's rise to absolute power, Madamede Rimussat explains that men worn out by
the turmoil of the revolution looked forthe domination of an able ruler, and
that people believed quite sincerely that Bonaparte, whether as consul or emperor, would
exert his authority and save from theperils of anar Napoleon's coronation, at which
Pope Pious the seventh officiated, tookplace at Notre Dame de Paris on the

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Tewod December eighteen o four. Theceremony more or less lasted around three hours,
so the guests who arrived earlier becamedull or bored and had to go
in and out of the cathedral toat least rejuvenate their spirits and also to
buy food and drink. Two separatecrowns were brought for the ceremony, a
golden laurel wreath recalling the Roman Empireand a replica of Charlemagne's crown. Napoleon

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entered the ceremony wearing the laurel wreathand kept it on his head throughout the
proceedings, since the laurel wreath symbolizedvictory, peace and civic virtue. For
the official coronation, he raised thereplica of charlemagne crown over his own head
in a symbolic gesture, but neverplaced it on top because he was already
wearing the golden wreath. After thecrown was placed on his head, everyone

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in the Notre Dame Cathedral stood upspontaneously, the men waving their feathered hats.
Josephine, his wife, knelt infront of Napoleon, where he then
placed the crown on Josephine's head.The event commemorated in the officially sanctioned painting
by Jacques Louis da Vide. Josephinebecame only the second queen to be crowned
and anointed in French history, otherthan Marie de Medici. Napoleon was then

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crowned King of Italy with the ironCrown of Lombardy at the Cathedral of Milan
on twenty six May eighteen oh five. He created eighteen Marshals of the Empire
from among his top generals to securethe allegiance of the army. On eighteenth
May eighteen oh four, the officialstart of the Empire. Great Britain had
broken the Peace of Amien by declaringwar on France in May eighteen oh three.

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In December eighteen oh four, anAnglo Swedish agreement became the first step
towards the creation of the Third Coalition. By April eighteen oh five, Britain
had also signed an alliance with Russia. Austria had been defeated by France twice
in recent memory and wanted revenge,so had joined the Coalition. A few
months later. Before the formation ofthe Third Coalition, Napoleon had assembled an

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invasion force, the Armie Dongoltaire,around six camps at Boulogne in northern France.
He intended to use this invasion forceto strike at England. They never
invaded, but Napoleon's troops received carefuland invaluable training for future military operations.
The men at Boulogne formed the corpsfor what Napoleon later called La Grande Armeai.

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At the start, this French armyhad about two hundred thousand men organized
into seven corps, which were largefield units that contained thirty six to forty
cannons each and were capable of independentaction until other corps could come to the
rescue. A single corps properly situatedin a strong defensive position, could survive
at least a day without support,giving the Grand Armay countless strategic and tactical

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options on every campaign. On topof these forces, Napoleon created a cavalry
reserve of twenty two thousand organized intotwo cuirassier divisions, four mounted dragoons U
divisions, one division of dismounted dragoons, and one of light cavalry, all
supported by twenty four artillery pieces.By eighteen oh five, the Granda Armais

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had grown to a force of threehundred and fifty thousand men who were well
equipped, well trained, and ledby competent officers. Napoleon knew that the
French fleet could not defeat the RoyalNavy and a head to head battle,
so he planned to lure it awayfrom the English Channel through diversionary tactics.
The main strategic idea involved the FrenchNavy escaping from the British blockades of Toulon

(38:30):
and Breast and threatening to attack theBritish West Indies. In the face of
this attack, it was hoped theBritish would weaken their defense of the Western
approaches by sending ships to the Caribbean, allowing a combined Franco Spanish fleet to
take control of the English Channel longenough for French armies to cross and invade.
However, the plan unraveled after theBritish victory at the Battle of Cape

(38:52):
Finistereire in July eighteen oh five.French Admiral Villeneuve then retreated to Cadiz instead
of linking up with French naval feesforces at Brest for an attack on the
English Channel. The decisive finale ofthe um campaign raised the tally of captured
Austrian soldiers to sixty thousand. Withthe Austrian army destroyed, Vienna would fall

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to the French in November. ByAugust eighteen oh five, Napoleon had realized
that the strategic situation had changed fundamentally. Facing a potential invasion from his continental
enemies, he decided to strike firstand turned his army sits from the English
Channel to the Rhine. His basicobjective was to destroy the isolated Austrian armies
in southern Germany before their Russian alliescould arrive. On twenty five September,

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after great secrecy and feverish marching,two hundred thousand French troops began to cross
the Rhine on a front of twohundred and sixty kilnum one hundred and sixty
me. Austrian commander Karl Mack hadgathered the greater part of the Austrian army
at the fortress of Ulm in Swabia. Napoleon swung his forces to the southeast

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and the Grand Army performed an anelaborate wheeling movement that outflanked the Austrian positions.
The Oul maneuver completely surprised General Mack, who belatedly understood that his army
had been cut off. After someminor engagements that culminated in the Battle of
Ulm, Mack finally surrendered after realizingthat there was no way to break out
of the French encirclement. For justtwo thousand French casualties, Napoleon had managed

(40:23):
to capture a total of sixty thousandAustrian soldiers through his army's rapid marching.
Napoleon wrote after the conflict, Ihave accomplished my object. I have destroyed
the Austrian army by simply marching.The Ulm Campaign is generally regarded as a
strategic masterpiece and was influential in thedevelopment of the Schliefen Plan in the late

(40:46):
nineteenth century. For the French,this spectacular victory on land was soured by
the decisive victory that the Royal Navyattained at the Battle of Trafalgar on twenty
first October. After Trafalgar, theRoyal Navy was never again seriously challenged by
a French fleet in a large scaleengagement for the duration of the Napoleonic Wars.

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Following the om Campaign, French forcesmanaged to capture Vienna in November.
The fall of Vienna provided the Frencha huge bounty, as they captured one
hundred thousand muskets, five hundred cannons, and the intact bridges across the Danube.
At this critical juncture, both CzarAlexander the First and Holy Roman Emperor
Francis the Second decided to engage Napoleonin battle, despite reservations from some of

(41:30):
their subordinates. Napoleon sent his armynorth in pursuit of the Allies, but
then ordered his forces to retreat sothat he could feign a grave weakness.
The Battle of Austerlitz, also knownas the Battle of the Three Emperors,
was one of Napoleon's many victories,where the French Empire defeated the Third Coalition.

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Desperate to lure the Allies into battle, Napoleon gave every indication in the
days preceding the engagement that the Frencharmy was in a pitiful state, even
abandoning them the dominant Protsen Heights,a sloping hill near the village of Austerlitz.
At the Battle of Austerlitz in Moraviaon second December, he deployed the
French army below the Protsen Heights anddeliberately weakened his right flank, enticing the

(42:13):
Allies to launch a major assault therein the hopes of rolling up the whole
French line. A forced march fromVienna by Martial Devous and Is the Third
Corps plugged the gap left by Napoleonjust in time. Meanwhile, the heavy
Allied deployment against the French right flankweakened their center on the Prattsen Heights,
which was viciously attacked by the IvyCorps of Marshal Soult. With the Allied

(42:36):
center demolished, the French swept throughboth enemy flanks and sent the Allies fleeing
chaotically, capturing thousands of prisoners inthe process. The battle is often seen
as a tactical masterpiece because of thenear perfect execution of a calibrated but dangerous
plan of the same stature as Cannai. The celebrated triumph by Hannibal some two

(42:57):
thousand years before the Allied disease disasterat Austerlitz significantly shook the faith of Emperor
Francis in the British led war effortFrance and Austria agreed to an armistice immediately,
and the Treaty of Presburg followed shortlyafter on twenty sixth December. Presburg
took Austria out of both the warand the coalition, while reinforcing the earlier
treaties of Campo Formio and of Lounuvillebetween the two powers. The treaty confirmed

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the Austrian loss of lands to Francein Italy and Bavaria, and lands in
Germany to Napoleon's German allies. Itimposed an indemnity of forty million francs on
the defeated Habsburg's and allowed the fleeingRussian troops free passage through hostile territories and
back to their home soil. Napoleonwent on to say, the Battle of

(43:43):
Austerlitz is the finest of all Ihave fought. Frank maclenn suggests that Napoleon
was so successful at Austerlitz that helost touch with reality and what used to
be French foreign policy became a personalNapoleonic one. Vincent Cronin discs stating that
Napoleon was not overly ambitious for himself, he embodied the ambitions of thirty million

(44:06):
Frenchmen. Napoleon continued to entertain agrand scheme to establish a French presence in
the Middle East in order to putpressure on Britain and Russia and perhaps form
an alliance with the Ottoman Empire.In February eighteen o six, Ottoman Emperor
Selim the Third recognized Napoleon as emperor. He also opted for an alliance with
France, calling France our sincere andnatural. Ally, that decision brought the

(44:30):
Ottoman Empire into a losing war againstRussia and Britain. A Franco Persian alliance
was formed between Napoleon and the PersianEmpire of fat Ali Shah Kajar. It
collapsed in eighteen oh seven when Franceand Russia formed an unexpected alliance. In
the end, Napoleon had made noeffective alliances in the Middle East. After

(44:52):
Austerlitz, Napoleon established the Confederation ofthe Rhine in eighteen oh six, a
collection of German states intended to serveas as a buffer zone between France and
Central Europe. The creation of theConfederation spelled the end of the Holy Roman
Empire and significantly alarmed the Prussians.The brazen reorganization of German territory by the

(45:12):
French risked threatening Prussian influence in theregion, if not eliminating it outright.
War fever and Berlin rose steadily throughoutthe summer of eighteen o six. At
the insistence of his court, especiallyhis wife, Queen Louise, Frederick William
the Third decided to challenge the Frenchdomination of Central Europe by going to war.
The initial military maneuvers began in Septembereighteen o six. In a letter

(45:37):
to Marshall Sult detailing the plan forthe campaign, Napoleon described the essential features
of Napoleonic warfare and introduced the phraseles bataillon care square battalion. In the
bataillon care system, the various corpsof the Grand Army would march uniformly together
in close supporting distance. If anysingle corps was attacked, the others could

(45:58):
quickly spring into action and arrived tohelp. Napoleon invaded Prussia with one hundred
and eighty thousand troops, rapidly marchingon the right bank of the River Salies.
As in previous campaigns, his fundamentalobjective was to destroy one opponent before
reinforcements from another could tip the balanceof the war. Upon learning the whereabouts
of the Prussian army, the Frenchswung westwards and crossed the Seillet with overwhelming

(46:22):
force. At the twin Battles ofJena and Auerstedt, fought on fourteenth October,
the French convincingly defeated the Prussians andinflicted heavy casualties, with several major
commanders dead or incapacitated. The Prussianking proved incapable of effectively commanding the army,
which began to quickly disintegrate. Ina vaunted pursuit that epitomized the peak

(46:45):
of Napoleonic warfare. According to historianRichard Brooks, the French managed to capture
one hundred and forty thousand soldiers,over two thousand cannons, and hundreds of
ammunition wagons, all in a singlemonth. Historian David Chandler wrote of the
Prussian forces, never has the moraleof any army been more completely shattered.

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Despite their overwhelming defeat, the Prussiansrefused to negotiate with the French until the
Russians had an opportunity to enter thefight. Following his triumph, Napoleon imposed
the first elements of the Continental Systemthrough the Berlin Decree issued in November eighteen
o six. The Continental System,which prohibited European nations from trading with Britain,

(47:29):
was widely violated throughout his reign.In the next few months, Napoleon
marched against the advancing Russian armies throughPoland and was involved in the bloody stalemate
at the Battle of Ailao in Februaryeighteen oh seven. After a period of
rest and consolidation on both sides,the war restarted in June, with an
initial struggle at Heilsburg that proved indecisive. On fourteenth June, Napoleon obtained an

(47:52):
overwhelming victory over the Russians at theBattle of Friedland, wiping out the majority
of the Russian army in a verybloody struggle. The scale of their defeat
convinced the Russians to make peace withthe French. On nineteenth June, Czar
Alexander sent an envoy to seek anarmistice with Napoleon. The latter assured the

(48:13):
envoy that the Vistula River represented thenatural borders between French and Russian influence in
Europe. On that basis. Thetwo emperors began peace negotiations at the town
of Tilsit after meeting on an iconicraft on the River Niemen. The very
first thing Alexander said to Napoleon wasprobably well calibrated. I hate the English
as much as you do. Theirmeeting lasted two hours. Despite waging wars

(48:37):
against each other, the two emperorswere very much impressed and fascinated by one
another. Never said Alexander afterward,did I love any man as I loved
that man. Alexander faced pressure fromhis brother, Duke Constantine to make peace
with Napoleon. Given the victory hehad just achieved. The French emperor offered
the Russians relatively lenient terms, demandingthe Russia joined the Continental system, withdraw

(49:01):
its forces from Wallachia and Moldavia,and hand over the Ionian Islands to France.
By contrast, Napoleon dictated very harshpeace terms for Prussia, despite the
ceaseless exhortations of Queen Louis. Wipingout half of Prussian territories from the map.
Napoleon created a new kingdom of twentyeight hundred square kilometers one thoup hundred

(49:22):
six chiome called Westphalia and appointed hisyoung brother Jerome as its monarch. Prussia's
humiliating treatment at Tilsit caused a deepand bitter antagonism that festered as the Napoleonic
era progressed. Moreover, Alexander's pretensionsat friendship with Napoleon led the latter to
seriously misjudge the true intentions of hisRussian counterpart, who would violate numerous provisions

(49:45):
of the treaty in the next fewyears. Despite these problems, the Treaties
of Tilsit at last gave Napoleon arespite from war and allowed him to return
to France, which he had notseen in over three hundred days. The
settlements at Tilsit gave napole Poleon timeto organize his empire. One of his
major objectives became enforcing the continental systemagainst the British forces. He decided to

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focus his attention on the Kingdom ofPortugal, which consistently violated his trade prohibitions.
After defeating the War of the Orangesin eighteen oh one, Portugal adopted
a double sided policy. Unhappy withthis change of policy by the Portuguese government,
Napoleon negotiated a secret treaty with Charlesthe Fourth of Spain and sent an

(50:29):
army to invade Portugal. On theseventeenth of October eighteen o seven, twenty
four thousand French troops under General Junocrossed the Pyrenees with Spanish cooperation and headed
towards Portugal to enforce Napoleon's orders.This attack was the first step in what
would eventually become the Peninsular War,a six year struggle that significantly sapped French

(50:50):
strength. Throughout the winner of eighteenoh eight, French agents became increasingly involved
in Spanish internal affairs, attempting toincite discord between members of the Spanishish royal
family. On sixteenth February eighteen oheight, secret French machinations finally materialized when
Napoleon announced that he would intervene tomediate between the rival political factions in the
country. Marshal Morat led one hundredtwenty thousand troops into Spain. The French

(51:15):
arrived in Madrid on the twenty fourof March, where wild riots against the
occupation erupted. Just a few weekslater, Napoleon appointed his brother Joseph Bonaparte
as the new King of Spain inthe summer of eighteen oh eight. The
appointment enraged a heavily religious and conservativeSpanish population. Resistance to French aggressions soon

(51:37):
spread throughout Spain. The shocking Frenchdefeats at the Battle of Biolin and the
Battle of Vimero gave hope to Napoleon'senemies and partly persuaded the French emperor to
intervene in person. Before going toIberia, Napoleon decided to address several lingering
issues with the Russians at the Congressof Effort in October eighteen oh eight.
Napoleon hoped to keep Russia on hisside during the U s, the upcoming

(52:00):
struggle in Spain, and during anypotential conflict against Austria. The two sides
reached an agreement, the air FortConvention, that called upon Britain to cease
its war against France, that recognizedthe Russian conquest of Finland from Sweden and
made it an autonomous Grand Duchy,and that affirmed Russian support for France in
a possible war against Austria to thebest of its ability. Napoleon then returned

(52:22):
to France and prepared for war.The Grande army under the Emperor's personal command
rapidly crossed the Ebro River in Novembereighteen oh eight and inflicted a series of
crushing defeats against the Spanish forces.After clearing the last Spanish force guarding the
capital at Somosierra, Napoleon entered Madridon the four December with eighty thousand troops.

(52:44):
He then unleashed his soldiers against Mooreand the British forces. The British
were swiftly driven to the coast,and they withdrew from Spain entirely after a
last stand at the Battle of Kurunain January eighteen o nine and the death
of Moore. Napoleon would end upleaving Iberia in order to deal with the
Austrians in Central Europe, but thePeninsular War continued on long after his absence.

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He never returned to Spain after theeighteen o eight campaign. Several months
after Karuna, the British sent anotherarmy to the peninsula under Arthur Wellesley,
the future Duke of Wellington. Thewar then settled into a complex and asymmetric
strategic deadlock, where all sides struggledto gain the upper hand. The highlight

(53:27):
of the conflict became the brutal guerrillawarfare that engulfed much of the Spanish countryside.
Both sides committed the worst atrocities ofthe Napoleonic Wars during this phase of
the conflict. The vicious guerrilla fightingin Spain, largely absent from the French
campaigns in Central Europe, severely disruptedthe French lines of supply and communication.
Although France maintained roughly three hundred thousandtroops in Iberia during the Peninsular War,

(53:52):
the vast majority were tied down togarrison duty and to intelligence operations. The
French were never able to concentrate allof their forces, effectively prolonging the war
until events elsewhere in Europe finally turnedthe tide in favor of the Allies.
After the invasion of Russia in eighteentwelve, the number of French troops in
Spain vastly declined as Napoleon needed reinforcementsto conserve his strategic position in Europe.

(54:20):
By eighteen fourteen, the Allies hadpushed the French out of the peninsula.
The impact of the Napoleonic invasion ofSpain and ousting of the Spanish Bourbon monarchy
in favor of his brother Joseph hadan enormous impact on the Spanish Empire.
In Spanish America, many local elitesformed juntas and set up mechanisms to rule
in the name of Ferdinand the Seventhof Spain, whom they considered the legitimate

(54:43):
Spanish monarch. The outbreak of theSpanish American Wars of Independence in most of
the Empire was a result of Napoleon'sdestabilising actions in Spain and led to the
rise of strong men in the wakeof these wars. After four years on
the sidelines, Austria sought another war, war with France to avenge its recent
defeats. Austria could not count onRussian support because the latter was at war

(55:06):
with Britain, Sweden, and theOttoman Empire in eighteen o nine. Frederick
William of Prussia initially promised to helpthe Austrians, but reneged before conflict began.
A report from the Austrian finance ministersuggested that the treasury would run out
of money by the middle of eighteenoh nine if the large army that the
Austrians had formed since the Third Coalitionremained mobilized. Although Archduke Charles warned that

(55:29):
the Austrians were not ready for anothershowdown with Napoleon, a stance that landed
him in the so called peace Party, he did not want to see the
army demobilized either. On eighth Februaryeighteen o nine, the advocates for war
finally succeeded when the Imperial government secretlydecided on another confrontation against the French.

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In the early morning of tenth April, leading elements of the Austrian army crossed
the Inn River and invaded Bavaria.The early Austrian attack surprised the French.
Napoleon himself was still in Paris whenhe heard about the invasion. He arrived
at Dunauworth on the seventeenth to findthe Grande Armey in a dangerous position,
with its two wings separated by onehundred and twenty kilometers seventy five miis and

(56:12):
joined by a thin cordon of Bavariantroops. Charles pressed the left wing of
the French army and hurled his mentowards the three Corps of Martial Davout.
In response, Napoleon came up witha plan to cut off the Austrians in
the celebrated Landshut maneuver, he realignedthe axis of his army and marched his
soldiers towards the town of Ekmul.The French scored a convincing win in the
resulting Battle of Ekmul, forcing Charlesto withdraw his forces over the Danube and

(56:37):
into Bohemia. On thirteen May,Vienna fell for the second time in four
years, although the war continued sincemost of the Austrian army had survived the
initial engagements in southern Germany. Ontwenty first May, the French made their
first major effort to cross the Danube, precipitating the Battle of Aspernessling. The

(56:58):
battle was characterized by a vision backand forth struggle for the two villages of
Aspern and Essling, the focal pointsof the French bridgehead. A sustained Austrian
artillery bombardment eventually convinced Napoleon to withdrawhis forces back onto Lobau Island. Both
sides inflicted about twenty three thousand casualtieson each other. It was the first
defeat Napoleon suffered in a major setpeace battle, and it caused excitement throughout

(57:22):
many parts of Europe because it provedthat he could be beaten on the battlefield.
After the setback at aspern Essling,Napoleon took more than six weeks in
planning and preparing for contingencies before hemade another attempt at crossing the Danube.
From thirty June to the early daysof July, the French recrossed the Danube
in strength, with more than onehundred and eighty thousand troops marching across the

(57:45):
Marchfeld towards the Austrians. Charles receivedthe French with one hundred fifty thousand of
his own men. In the ensuingBattle of Wagram, which also lasted two
days, Napoleon commanded his forces inwhat was the largest battle of his career
up until then. Napoleon finished offthe battle with a concentrated central thrust that
punctured a hole in the Austrian armyand forced Charles to retreat. Austrian losses

(58:09):
were very heavy, reaching well overforty thousand casualties. The French were too
exhausted to pursue the Austrians immediately,but Napoleon eventually caught up with Charles.
It's name and the latter signed anarmistice on twelve July nat in the Kingdom
of Holland. The British launched theValcaran Campaign to open up a second front

(58:30):
in the war and to relieve thepressure on the Austrians. The British army
only landed at Valcaran on thirty ofJuly, by which point the Austrians had
already been defeated. The Waalcaran campaignwas characterized by little fighting but heavy casualties
thanks to the popularly dubbed Valcarin faver. Over four thousand British troops were lost
in a bungled campaign, and therest withdrew in December eighteen o nine.

(58:53):
The main strategic result from the campaignbecame the delayed political settlement between the French
and the Austrians. Emperor Francis waitedto see how the British performed in their
theater before entering into negotiations with Napoleon. The resulting Treaty of Schonbrun in October
eighteen o nine was the harshest thatFrance had imposed on Austria in recent memory.

(59:13):
Metternich and Archduke Charles had the preservationof the Habsburg Empire as their fundamental
goal, and to this end theysucceeded by making Napoleon seek more modest goals
in return for promises of friendship betweenthe two powers. While most of the
hereditary lands remained a part of theHabsburg Realm, France received Corinthia, Carneola
and the Adriatic ports, while Galiciawas given to the Poles and the Salzburg

(59:37):
area of the Tyrol went to theBavarians. Austria lost over three million subjects,
about one fifth of her total population, as a result of these territorial
changes. Napoleon turned his focus todomestic affairs after the war. Empress Josephine
had still not given birth to achild from Napoleon, who became worried about
the future of his empire following hisdeath. Desperate for a legitimate heir,

(01:00:01):
Napoleon divorced Josephine on tenth of Januaryeighteen ten and started looking for a new
wife. Hoping to cement the recentalliance with Austria through a family connection,
Napoleon married the eighteen year old ArchduchessMarie Louise, daughter of Emperor Francis the
Second, on twentieth of March eighteeneleven, Marie Louise gave birth to a

(01:00:21):
baby boy, whom Napoleon made heirapparent and bestowed the title of King of
Rome. His son never actually ruledthe Empire, but given his brief titular
rule and cousin Louis Napoleon's subsequent naminghimself Napoleon the Third, historians often referred
to him as Napoleon the Second.In eighteen o eight, Napoleon and Sar
Alexander met at the Congress of Ehrfurtto preserve the Roussau French alliance. The

(01:00:45):
leaders had a friendly personal relationship aftertheir first meeting at Tilsit in eighteen o
seven. By eighteen eleven, however, tensions had increased. A strain on
the relationship became the regular violations ofthe continental system by the Russians as their
economy was failing, which led Papoleonto threaten Alexander with serious consequences if he
formed an alliance with Britain. Byeighteen twelve, advisers to Alexander suggested the

(01:01:07):
possibility of an invasion of the FrenchEmpire and the recapture of Poland on receipt
of intelligence reports on Russia's war preparations, Napoleon expanded his Grande Armay to more
than four hundred and fifty thousand men. He ignored repeated advice against an invasion
of the Russian heartland and prepared foran offensive campaign. On twenty four of

(01:01:29):
June eighteen twelve, the invasion commenced. In an attempt to gain increase support
from Polish nationalists and patriots, Napoleontermed the war the Second Polish War.
The first Polish War had been thebar Confederation uprising by Polish nobles against Russia
in seventeen sixty eight. Polish patriotswanted the Russian part of Poland to be
joined with the Duchy of Warsaw andan independent Poland created. This was rejected

(01:01:53):
by Napoleon, who stated he hadpromised his ally Austria this would not happen.
Napoleon refused to manumit the Russian serfsbecause of concerns this might provoke a
reaction in his army's rear. Theserfs later committed atrocities against French soldiers during
France's retreat. The Russians avoided Napoleon'sobjective of a decisive engagement and instead retreated

(01:02:15):
deeper into Russia. A brief attemptat resistance was made at Smolensk in August.
The Russians were defeated in a seriesof battles, and Napoleon resumed his
advance. The Russians again avoided battle, although in a few cases this was
only achieved because Napoleon uncharacteristically hesitated toattack when the opportunity arose. Owing to

(01:02:36):
the Russian army's scorched earth tactics,the French found it increasingly difficult to forage
food for themselves and their horses.The Russians eventually offered battle outside Moscow on
seventh of September. The Battle ofBorodino resulted in approximately forty four thousand Russian
and thirty five thousand French dead,wounded, or captured, and may have

(01:02:57):
been the bloodiest day of battle inhistory up to that point in time.
Although the French had won, theRussian army had accepted and withstood the major
battle Napoleon had hoped would be decisive. Napoleon's own account was the most terrible
of all my battles was the onebefore Moscow. The French showed themselves to
be worthy of victory, but theRussians showed themselves worthy of being invincible.

(01:03:22):
The Russian army withdrew and retreated pastMoscow. Napoleon entered the city, assuming
its fall would end the war andAlexander would negotiate peace. Moscow was burned
rather than surrendered, on the orderof Moscow's governor, Feodor Rostopchin. After
five weeks, Napoleon and his armyleft in early November. Napoleon became concerned
about the loss of control back inFrance after the Molet coup of eighteen twelve.

(01:03:46):
His army walked through snow up totheir knees and nearly ten thousand men
and horses froze to death on thenight of eight ninetau November alone, after
the Battle of Berezena, Napoleon managedto escape, but had to abandon much
of the remaining artillery and baggage train. On fifth of December, shortly before
arriving in Vilnius, Napoleon left thearmy in a sledge. The French suffered

(01:04:09):
in the course of a ruinous retreat, including from the harshness of the Russian
winter. The armai had begun asover four hundred thousand frontline troops, with
fewer than forty thousand crossing the BerezenaRiver in November eighteen twelve. The Russians
had lost one hundred and fifty thousandsoldiers in battle and hundreds of thousands of
civilians. There was a lull infighting over the winter of eighteen twelve to

(01:04:32):
thirteen, while both the Russians andthe French rebuilt their forces. Napoleon was
able to field three hundred and fiftythousand troops. Heartened by France's loss in
Russia, Prussia joined with Austria,Sweden, Russia, Great Britain, Spain,
and Portugal in a new coalition.Napoleon assumed command in Germany and inflicted

(01:04:53):
a series of defeats on the coalition, culminating in the Battle of Dresden in
August eighteen thirteen. Despite these successes, the numbers continued to mount against Napoleon,
and the French army was pinned downby a force twice its size and
lost at the Battle of Leipzig.This was by far the largest battle of
the Napoleonic Wars and cost more thanninety thousand casualties in total. The Allies

(01:05:17):
offered peace terms in the Frankfurt proposalsin November eighteen thirteen. Napoleon would remain
as Emperor of the French, butit would be reduced to its natural frontiers.
That meant that France could retain controlof Belgium, Savoy, and the
Rhineland the west bank of the RhineRiver, while giving up control of all
the rest, including all of Spainand the Netherlands and most of Italy and

(01:05:40):
Germany. Metternich told Napoleon these werethe best terms the Allies were likely to
offer. After further victories, theterms would be harsher and harsher. Metternick's
motivation was to maintain France as abalance against Russian threats while ending the highly
destabilizing series of wars. Napoleon,expecting to win the war, delayed too

(01:06:00):
long and lost this opportunity. ByDecember, the Allies had withdrawn the offer.
When his back was to the wall. In eighteen fourteen, he tried
to reopen peace negotiations on the basisof accepting the Frankfurt proposals. The Allies
now had new harsher terms that includedthe retreat of France to its seventeen ninety
one boundaries. Which meant the lossof Belgium, but Napoleon would remain emperor.

(01:06:25):
However, he rejected the terms.The British wanted Napoleon permanently removed,
and they prevailed, though Napoleon adamantlyrefused. Napoleon withdrew into France, his
army reduced to seventy thousand soldiers inlittle cavalry, he faced more than three
times as many Allied troops. JosephBonaparte, Napoleon's older brother, abdicated as

(01:06:45):
King of Spain on thirteenth December eighteenthirteen and assumed the title of lieutenant general
to save the collapsing empire. TheFrench were surrounded British armies pressed from the
south, and other coalition forces positionedto attack from the German states. By
the middle of January eighteen fourteen,the coalition had already entered France's borders and
launched a two pronged attack on Paris, with Prussia entering from the north and

(01:07:10):
Austria from the east, marching outof the capitulated Swiss Confederation. The French
Empire, however, would not godown so easily. Napoleon launched a series
of victories in the Six Days Campaign. While they repulsed the Coalition forces and
delayed the capture of Paris by atleast a full month, these were not
significant enough to turn the tide.The coalitionaries camped on the outskirts of the

(01:07:33):
capital on twenty ninth March. Aday later, they advanced on to the
demoralized soldiers protecting the city. JosephBonaparte led a final battle at the gates
of Paris. They were greatly outnumbered, as thirty thousand French soldiers were pitted
against a combined Coalition force that wasfive times greater. They were defeated and

(01:07:54):
Joseph retreated out of the city.The leaders of Paris surrendered to the Coalition
on the last day of March eighteenfour thirteen. On first April, Alexander
addressed the Senate conservatour long doscail toNapoleon. Under Talleyran's prodding, it had
turned against him. Alexander told theSinat that the Allies were fighting against Napoleon,

(01:08:15):
not France, and they were preparedto offer honorable peace terms if Napoleon
were removed from power. The nextday, the Senat passed the Acte de
decience de l'Empereur Emperor's Demise Act,which declared Napoleon deposed. Napoleon had advanced
as far as Fontainebleau when he learnedthat Paris had fallen. When Napoleon proposed

(01:08:36):
the army march on the capitol,his senior officers and marshal's mutinied. On
ford of April, led by Ney, the senior officers confronted Napoleon when Napoleon
asserted the army would follow him,Ney replied that the army would follow its
generals. While the ordinary soldiers andregimental officers wanted to fight on, the
senior commanders were unwilling to continue.Without any senior officers or marshals, any

(01:09:00):
prospective invasion of Paris would have beenimpossible. Bowing to the inevitable, on
four of April, Napoleon abdicated infavor of his son, with Marie Louise's
regent. However, the Allies refusedto accept this, under prodding from Alexander,
who feared that Napoleon might find anexcuse to retake the throne. Napoleon
was then forced to announce his unconditionalabdication only two days later. In his

(01:09:25):
farewell address to the soldiers of OldGuard in twenty point April, Napoleon said,
soldiers of my old Guard, Ihave come to bid you farewell.
For twenty years you have accompanied mefaithfully on the paths of honor and glory.
With men like you, our causewas lost, but the war would
have dragged on interminably, and itwould have been a civil war. So

(01:09:45):
I am sacrificing our interests to thoseof our country. Do not lament my
fate. If I have agreed tolive on, it is to serve our
glory. I wish to write thehistory of the great deeds we have done
together. Farewell, my children.The Allied powers, having declared that Emperor
Napoleon was the sole obstacle to therestoration of peace in Europe, Emperor Napoleon,

(01:10:08):
faithful to his oath, declares thathe renounces for himself and his heirs
the thrones of France in Italy,and that there is no personal sacrifice,
even that of his life, whichhe is not ready to make in the
interests of France. Done in thePalace of Fontainebleaux eleventh April eighteen fourteen,
in the Treaty of Fontainebleaux. TheAllies exiled Napoleon to Elba, an island

(01:10:31):
of twelve thousand inhabitants in the Mediterraneanten koi minus six mile off the Tuscan
coast. They gave him sovereignty overthe island and allowed him to retain the
title of Emperor. Napoleon attempted suicidewith a pile head carried after nearly being
captured by the Russians during the retreatfrom Moscow. Its potency had weakened with
age, however, and he survivedto be exiled while his wife and son

(01:10:54):
took refuge in Austria. He wasconveyed to the island on HMS Undaunted by
Captain Thomas Usher, and he arrivedat Portaferrao on thirty pounds May eighteen fourteen.
In the first few months on Elba, he created a small navy and
army, developed the iron mines,oversaw the construction of new roads, issued
decrees on modern agricultural methods, andoverhauled the island's legal and educational system.

(01:11:19):
A few months into his exile,Napoleon learned that his ex wife, Josephine,
had died in France. He wasdevastated by the news, locking himself
in his room and refusing to leavefor two days. Separated from his wife
and son, who had returned toAustria, cut off from the allowance guaranteed
to him by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, and aware of rumors he was about

(01:11:41):
to be banished to a remote islandin the Atlantic Ocean, Napoleon escaped from
Elba in the brig in Constant ontwenty six February eighteen fifteen with seven hundred
men. Two days later, helanded on the French mainland at Gulf of
Juan and started heading north. Thefifth Regiment was sent to intercept him and
made content just south of Grenoble onseven March eighteen fifteen. Napoleon approached the

(01:12:04):
regiment alone, dismounted his horse,and when he was within gunshot range,
shouted to the soldiers, here,I am kill your emperor if you wish.
The soldiers quickly responded with vive l'Empereur. Nay, who had boasted to
the restored Bourbon king Louis Courteth thathe would bring Napoleon to Paris in an
iron cage, affectionately kissed his formeremperor and forgot his oath of allegiance to

(01:12:26):
the Bourbon monarch. The two thenmarched together toward Paris with a growing army.
The unpopular Louis sixteenth fled to Belgiumafter realizing that he had little political
support. On thirteenth March, thepowers at the Congress of Vienna declared Napoleon
an outlaw. Four days later,Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and
Prussia each pledged to put one hundredand fifty thousand men into the field to

(01:12:50):
end his rule. Napoleon arrived inParis on twentieth of March and governed for
a period now called one hundred days. By the start of June, the
armed forces as available to him hadreached two hundred thousand, and he decided
to go on the offensive to attemptto drive a wedge between the oncoming British
and Prussian armies. The French Armyof the North crossed the frontier into the

(01:13:11):
United Kingdom of the Netherlands in modernday Belgium. Napoleon's forces fought two coalition
armies commanded by the British Duke ofWellington and the Prussian Prince Blucher. At
the Battle of Waterloo on eighteenth Juneeighteen fifteen. Wellington's army withstood repeated attacks
by the French and survived through theday, while the Prussians arrived in force
and broke through Napoleon's right flank.Napoleon returned to Paris and found that both

(01:13:34):
the legislature and the people had turnedagainst him. Realizing that his position was
untenable, he abdicated on twenty secondJune in favor of his son. He
left Paris three days later and settledat Josephine's former palace in Malmaison, on
the western bank of the Seine,about seventeen kilometers eleven mins west of Paris.
Even as Napoleon traveled to Paris,the Coalition forces swept through France,

(01:13:59):
arriving in the visinity of Paris ontwenty ninth June with the stated intent of
restoring Louis the sixteen tenth to theFrench throne. When Napoleon heard that Prussian
troops had orders to capture him,dead or alive, he fled to Rochefort,
considering an escape to the United States. British ships were blocking every port.
Napoleon surrendered to Captain Frederick Maitland onHMS Bellophon on fifteenth July eighteen fifteen.

(01:14:21):
Refusing Napoleon's request for political asylum inEngland, the British kept Napoleon on
the island of Saint Helena in theAtlantic Ocean one thousand, hundred and seventy
come one thousand, sixty two towerme from the west coast of Africa.
Napoleon arrived at Jamestown, Saint Helenain October eighteen fifteen, on board HMS

(01:14:42):
Northumberland. The British took the precautionof sending a small garrison of soldiers to
both Saint Helena and the nearby uninhabitedAscension Island, which lay between Saint Helena
and Europe, to prevent any escapefrom the island. Napoleon stayed for two
months at Briar's Pavilion before he wasmoved to Longwood House, a large wooden
bungalow on Saint Helena, in Decembereighteen fifteen. By this point, the

(01:15:04):
house had fallen into disrepair. Thelocation and interior of the house was damp,
wind swept and unhealthy. The Timespublished articles insinuating the British government was
trying to hasten his death. Napoleonoften complained of the living conditions of Longwood
House in letters to the island's governorand his custodian, Hudson Lowe, while
his attendants complained of colds, catars, damp floors, and poor provisions.

(01:15:29):
Modern scientists have speculated that his laterillness may have arisen from arsenic poisoning caused
by a copper arsenate in the wallpaperat Longwood House. With a small cadre
of followers, Napoleon dictated his memoirsand grumbled about the living conditions. Low
cut Napoleon's expenditure, ruled that nogifts were allowed if they mentioned his imperial
status, and made his supporters signa guarantee they would stay with the prisoner

(01:15:53):
indefinitely. When he held a dinnerparty, men were expected to wear military
dress and women in evening gowns andjams. It was an explicit denial of
the circumstances of his captivity. Whilein exile, Napoleon wrote a book about
Julius Caesar, one of his greatheroes. He also studied English under the
tutelage of Count Emanuel de las Cassese, with the main aim of being able

(01:16:15):
to read English newspapers and books,as access to French newspapers and books was
heavily restricted to him on Saint Helena. Las Cassees compiled the book The Memorial
of Saint Helena about his time onthe island with Napoleon. Reflecting Napoleon's self
depictions, it depicts him as aliberal, visionary ruler for European unification deposed

(01:16:36):
by reactionary elements of the Ancien regime. Another pastime of Napoleon's while in exile
was playing card games. The numberof patienses named in his honor seems to
suggest that he was an avid playerof the solitary game Napoleon at Saint Helena
is described as being a favorite ofhis, while Napoleon's Favorite Or Saint Helena

(01:16:57):
is clearly a contender. Other gameswith a poleonic theme include Napoleon's Flank,
Napoleon's Shoulder, Napoleon's Square, andLittle Napoleon Patients. However, Arnold argues
that while Napoleon played cards in exile, the notion that he played numerous patients
games is based on a misunderstanding.There were rumors of plots and even of

(01:17:17):
his escape from Saint Helena, butin reality no serious attempts were ever made
for English poet Lord Byron. Napoleonwas the epitome of the romantic hero,
the persecuted, lonely and flawed genius. Napoleon's personal physician, barri O'mera,
warned the English government that his decliningstate of health was mainly caused by the
harsh treatment. During the last fewyears of his life. Napoleon confined himself

(01:17:41):
for months on end in his damp, mold infested and wretched habitation of Longwood.
Years of isolation and loneliness took itstoll on Napoleon's mental health, having
his court continually reduced, including thearrest of Count Emmanuel de las Cassey's conditions,
which Lord Holland used to bring abouta debate regarding the treatment of Napoleon
in captivity. In February eighteen twentyone, Napoleon's health began to deteriorate rapidly,

(01:18:08):
and he reconciled with the Catholic Church. By March, he had become
confined to bed. Napoleon died ona fifth of May eighteen twenty one at
Longwood House at age fifty one,after making his last confession extreme unction and
viaticum in the presence of Father Angevignali. From his deathbed, his last words
were France, larmay, tete d'armay, Josephine, France, the Army,

(01:18:30):
head of the army, Josephine.Shortly after his death, an autopsy was
conducted and Francois Carlo Antomarchi, thedoctor conducting the autopsy, cut off Napoleon's
penis. Napoleon's original death mask wascreated around six of May, although it
is not clear which doctor created it. Napoleon's heart and and testines were removed
and contained separately in two sealed vessels, which were placed inside his coffin at

(01:18:54):
his feet. In his will,he had asked to be buried on the
banks of the Seine, but theBritish governor said he should be buried on
Saint Helena in the Valley of theWillows. In eighteen forty, Louis Philippe
first obtained permission from the British governmentto return Napoleon's remains to France. His
casket was opened to confirm that itstill contained the former emperor despite being dead

(01:19:15):
for nearly two decades. Napoleon hadbeen very well preserved and not decomposed at
all. On the fifteenth December eighteenforty, a state funeral was held.
The horse drawn hearst proceeded from theArc de Triomphe down the Chanz e Lyze,
across the Place de la Concord tothe Esplanade des Envalid, and then
to the Cupola and Saint Jerome's Chapel, where it remained until the tomb,

(01:19:38):
designed by Louis Visconti was completed ineighteen sixty one. Napoleon's remains were entombed
in a sarcophagus of red courtzite fromRussia, often mistaken for porfiry in the
crypt under the dome at Lesian validsituation of Napoleon's body when his coffin was
reopened on Saint Helena by Jules Regoeighteen forty. The cause of Napoleon's death

(01:19:59):
has been debated. His physician FrancoisCarlo and Tolmerchi led the autopsy, which
found the cause of death to bestomach cancer, and Tomarchi did not sign
the official report. Napoleon's father haddied of stomach cancer, although this was
apparently unknown at the time of theautopsy and to Marchie found evidence of a
stomach ulcer. This was the mostconvenient explanation for the British, who wanted

(01:20:23):
to avoid criticism over their care ofNapoleon. In nineteen fifty five, the
diaries of Napoleon's valet, Louis Marchandwere published. His description of Napoleon in
the months before his death led Stenforthchu Food in a nineteen sixty one paper
in Nature to put forward other causesfor his death, including deliberate arsenic poisoning.
Arsenic was used as a poison duringthe era because it was undetectable when

(01:20:45):
administered over a long period. Furthermore, in a nineteen seventy eight book with
Ben wider For, Scheffud noted thatNapoleon's body was found to be well preserved
when moved in eighteen forty. Arsenicis a strong preservative, and therefore this
supported the poisoning hypothesis. For Schuffutand Whiter observed that Napoleon had attempted to
quench abnormal thirst by drinking large amountsof orgate syrup that contained cyanide compounds in

(01:21:12):
the almonds used for flavoring. Theymaintained that the potassium tartarate used in his
treatment prevented his stomach from expelling thesecompounds, and that his thirst was a
symptom of the poison. Their hypothesiswas that the calamel given to Napoleon became
an overdose which killed him and leftextensive tissue damage behind. According to a

(01:21:33):
two thousand and seven article, thetype of arsenic found in Napoleon's hair shafts
was mineral, the most toxic,and according to toxicologist Patrick Kints, this
supported the conclusion that he was murdered, and there have been modern studies that
have supported the original autopsy finding.In a two thousand and eight study,
researchers analyzed samples of Napoleon's hair fromthroughout his life, as well as samples

(01:21:57):
from his family and other contemporaries.All samples had high levels of arsenic,
approximately one hundred times higher than thecurrent average. According to these researchers,
Napoleon's body was already heavily contaminated witharsenic as a boy, and the high
arsenic concentration in his hair was notcaused by intentional poisoning. People were constantly
exposed to arsenic from glues and dyesthroughout their lives. Studies published in two

(01:22:20):
thousand seven and two thousand and eightdismissed evidence of arsenic poisoning, suggesting peptic
ulcer and gastric cancer as the causeof death. Napoleon was baptized in a
Jatcho on twenty first July seventeen seventyone. He was raised as a Catholic,
but never developed much faith, thoughhe recalled the day of his first
communion in the Catholic Church to bethe happiest day of his life. As

(01:22:44):
an adult, Napoleon was a deist, believing in an absent and distant God.
However, he had a keen appreciationof the power of organized religion in
social and political affairs, and hepaid a great deal of attention to bending
it to his purposes. He notedthe influence of Catholicism's rich rules and splendors.
Napoleon once said, religion is asort of inoculation or vaccine, which,

(01:23:05):
while satisfying our sense of the supernatural, guarantees us from the charlatans and
the magicians. Napoleon had a civilmarriage with Josephine de Boharnay without religious ceremony,
Napoleon was crowned emperor on tewod Decembereighteen o four at Notre Dame de
Paris in a ceremony presided over byPope Pious the seventh. On the eve

(01:23:27):
of the coronation ceremony and at theinsistence of Pope Pious the seventh, a
private religious wedding ceremony of Napoleon andJosephine was celebrated. Cardinal Fesch performed the
wedding. This marriage was annulled bytribunals under Napoleon's control in January eighteen ten.
On worst April eighteen ten, Napoleonmarried the Austrian Princess Marie Louise in

(01:23:47):
a Catholic ceremony. Napoleon was excommunicatedby the Pope through the Bulcomb Memoranda in
eighteen o nine, but later reconciledwith the Catholic Church before his death in
eighteen twenty one. While an exexile in Saint Helena, he is recorded
to have said, I know men, and I tell you that Jesus Christ
is not a man. He alsodefended Mohammed a Great Man against Voltaire's Mahomet,

(01:24:11):
seeking national reconciliation between revolutionaries and Catholics. Napoleon and Pope Pious the Seventh
signed the Concordate of eighteen oh oneon fifteenth July eighteen oh one. It
solidified the Roman Catholic Church as themajority church of France and brought back most
of its civil status. The hostilityof devout Catholics against the state had now
largely been resolved. The Concorda didnot restore the vast church lands and endowments

(01:24:36):
that had been seized during the revolutionand sold off. As a part of
the Concordant, Napoleon presented another setof laws called the Organic Articles. While
the Concordate restored much power to thepapacy, the balance of church state relations
had tilted firmly in Napoleon's favour.He selected the bishops and supervised church finances.

(01:24:57):
Napoleon and the Pope both found theConcorda useful. Similar arrangements were made
with the Church in territories controlled byNapoleon, especially Italy and Germany. Now
Napoleon could win favor with the Catholicswhile also controlling Rome in a political sense,
Napoleon said in April eighteen oh one, skillful conquerors have not got entangled
with priests. They can both containthem and use them. French children were

(01:25:23):
issued a catechism that taught them tolove and respect Napoleon. In eighteen o
nine, under Napoleon's orders, PopePious the seventh was placed under arrest in
Italy, and in eighteen twelve theprisoner Pontiff was transferred to France, being
held in the Palace of Fontainebleau.Because the arrest was made in a clandestine

(01:25:43):
manner, some sources describe it asa kidnapping. In January eighteen thirteen,
Napoleon personally forced the Pope to signa humiliating concordat of Fontainebleau, which was
later repudiated by the Pontiff. ThePope was not released until eighteen fourteen,
when the Coalition invaded France. Napoleonemancipated Jews, as well as Protestants and
Catholic countries and Catholics in Protestant countriesfrom laws which restricted them to ghettos,

(01:26:10):
and he expanded their rights to property, worship, and careers. Despite the
anti Semitic reaction to Napoleon's policies fromforeign governments and within France. He believed
emancipation would benefit France by attracting Jewsto the country given the restrictions they faced
elsewhere. In eighteen o six,an assembly of Jewish notables was gathered by
Napoleon to discuss twelve questions, broadlydealing with the relations between Jews and Christians,

(01:26:36):
as well as other issues dealing withthe Jewish ability to integrate into French
society. Later, after the questionswere answered in a satisfactory way, according
to the Emperor, a great Sanhedrinwas brought together to transform the answers into
decisions that would form the basis ofthe future status of the Jews in France
and the rest of the empire Napoleonwas building. He stated, I will

(01:26:59):
never accept any proposals that will obligatethe Jewish people to leave France, because
to me, the Jews are thesame as any other citizen in our country.
It takes weakness to chase them outof the country, but it takes
strength to assimilate them. He wasseen as so favorable to the Jews that
the Russian Orthodox Church formally condemned himas anti Christ and the enemy of God.

(01:27:21):
One year after the final meeting ofthe Sanhedron on the seventeenth of March
eighteen o eight, Napoleon placed theJews on probation. Several new laws restricting
the citizenship the Jews had been offeredseventeen years previously, were instituted at that
time. However, despite pressure fromleaders of a number of Christian communities to

(01:27:42):
refrain from granting Jews emancipation, withinone year of the issue of the new
restrictions, they were once again liftedin response to the appeal of Jews from
all over France. Peter Geile wrotein nineteen forty seven, it is impossible
that two historians, especially two historiansliving in different periods, should see any
historical personality in the same light.There is no dispute that Napoleon was ambitious,

(01:28:05):
although commentators disagree on whether his ambitionwas mostly for his own power and
glory or for the welfare of France. Historians agree that Napoleon was highly intelligent,
with an excellent memory, and wasa superior organizer who could work efficiently
for long hours. In battle,he could rapidly dictate a series of complex

(01:28:25):
commands to his subordinates, keeping inmind where major units were expected to be
at each future point. He wasan inspiring leader who could obtain the best
from his soldiers and subordinates. TheDuke of Wellington said his presence on the
battlefield was worth forty thousand soldiers.He could charm people when he needed to,
but could also publicly humiliate them,and was known for his rages when

(01:28:46):
his plans were frustrated. Historian maclennsees him as a misogynist with a cruel
streak which he often inflicted on women, children, and animals. There is
debate over whether Napoleon was an outsiderwho never felt at home in France or
with other people. Taine said Napoleonsaw others only as instruments and was cut
off from feelings of admiration, sympathy, or pity. Arthur Levy replied that

(01:29:12):
Napoleon genuinely loved Josephine and often showedhumanity and compassion to his enemies or those
who had let him down. Hehad the normal middle class virtues and understood
the common man. Similarly, historiansare divided over whether Napoleon was consistently ruthless
when his power was threatened or surprisinglyindulgent In some cases. Those arguing for

(01:29:33):
a ruthless personality point to episodes suchas his violent suppression of revolts in France
and conquered territories, his execution ofthe Duc d' enguienne and plotters against his
rule, and his massacre of Turkishprisoners of war in Syria in seventeen ninety
nine. Others point to his mildtreatment of disloyal subordinates such as Bernadotte,

(01:29:54):
Taleyran, and Fousche. Many historianssee Napoleon as pragmatic and a realist,
at least in the early years ofhis rule. He wasn't driven by ideology
and promoted capable men irrespective of theirpolitical and social background, as long as
they were loyal. As an expertin military matters, he valued technical expertise
and listened to the advice of expertsin other fields. However, there is

(01:30:15):
a consensus that once he dominated Europe, he became more intolerant of other views
and surrounded himself with yes men.Towards the end of his reign, he
lost his realism and ability to compromise. Some historians talk of Napoleon's dual nature.
A rationalist with a strong romantic streak. He took a team of scholars,
artists, and engineers with him toEgypt in order to scientifically study the

(01:30:38):
country's culture and history, but atthe same time was struck by romantic orientalism.
I was full of dreams, hestated. I saw myself founding a
religion, marching into Asia, ridingan elephant, a turban on my head,
and in my hand a new Koranthat I would have composed to suit
my need. Napoleon was superstitious.He believed in omens, numerology, fate,

(01:31:00):
and lucky stars, and always askedof his generals, is he lucky?
Dwyer states that Napoleon's victories at Austerlitzand Jena in eighteen O five o
six left him even more certain ofhis destiny and invincibility. I am of
the race that founds Empires, heonce boasted, deeming himself an heir to
the ancient Romans. Various psychologists haveattempted to explain Napoleon's personality. Alfred Adler

(01:31:26):
cited Napoleon to describe an inferiority complex, in which short people adopt over aggressive
behavior to compensate for lack of height. This inspired the term Napoleon complex.
Adler from and Reich ascribed his nervousenergy to sexual dysfunction. Harold T.
Parker speculated that rivalry with his olderbrother and bullying when he moved to France

(01:31:47):
led him to develop an inferiority complexwhich made him domineering. Napoleon is often
represented in his green kernel uniform ofthe Chasseur a cheval of the Imperial Guard,
the regiment that often served as hispersonal escort, with a large by
corn and a hand and waistcoat gesture. Many of those who met Napoleon were

(01:32:08):
surprised by his unremarkable physical appearance incontrast to his significant deeds and reputation.
In his youth, he was consistentlydescribed as small and thin. English painter
Joseph Farrington, who met him ineighteen o two, said, Samuel Rogers
stood a little way from me andseemed to be disappointed in the look of
countenance, and said it was thatof a little Italian. Farrington said Napoleon's

(01:32:30):
eyes were lighter and more of agray than I should have expected from his
complexion, that his person is belowmiddle size, and that his general aspect
was milder than I had before thoughtit. A friend who first met him
as a young man, said Napoleonwas only notable for the dark color of
his complexion, for his piercing andscrutinizing glance, and for the style of

(01:32:53):
his conversation. He also said thatNapoleon was serious and somber. Johann Ludwig
Wurstenberger, who accompany Napoleon in seventeenninety seven and seventeen ninety eight, noted
that Bonaparte was rather slight and emaciatedlooking. His face, too, was
very thin, with a dark complexion. His black, unpowdered hair hung down
evenly over both shoulders, but thatdespite his slight and unkempt appearance, his

(01:33:16):
looks and expression were earnest and powerful. His face was slightly swarthy, with
regular features. His nose was notvery large, but straight with a slight,
hardly noticeable bend. The hair onhis head was dark reddish blonde.
His eyebrows and eyelashes were much darkerthan the color of his hair, and
his blue eyes, set off bythe almost black lashes, gave him a

(01:33:41):
most pleasing expression. The man Isaw was of short stature, just over
five feet tall, rather heavy,although he was only thirty seven years old.
During the Napoleonic Wars, he wasdepicted by the British press as a
dangerous tyrant poised to invade a nursery, rhyme worn children that Bonaparte ate naughty
people, the bogey man. Hewas mocked as a short tempered small man

(01:34:03):
and was nicknamed little Boney in astrong fit. In fact, at one
point seven m or five feet twoinch according to measures usuels, he was
of average height. In his lateryears, he gained weight and had a
sallow complexion. Novelist Paul de Cook, who saw him in eighteen eleven,
called Napoleon yellow, obese and bloated. A British captain who met him in

(01:34:23):
eighteen fifteen stated I felt very muchdisappointed, as I believe everyone else did
in his appearance. He is fat, rather what we call potbellied, and
although his leg is well shaped,it is rather clumsy. He is very
sallow, with light gray eyes andrather thin, greasy looking brown hair,
and altogether a very nasty, priestlikelooking fellow. He is often portrayed wearing

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a large bicorn hat sideways with ahand and waistcoat gesture, a reference to
the painting produced in eighteen twelve byJacques Louis David. First remittance of the
Legion of Honour fifteen July eighteen ofour at San Luis des Valide by Jean
Baptiste Debray eighteen twelve. Napoleon institutednumerous reforms, many of which had a

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lasting impact on France, Europe,and the world. He reformed the French
administration, codified French law, implementeda new education system, and established the
first French central bank, the Banquede France. He negotiated the Concorde Out
of eighteen oh one with the CatholicChurch, which sought to reconcile the majority
Catholic population to his regime. Itwas presented alongside the Organic Articles, which

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regulated public worship in France. Healso implemented civil and religious equality for Protestants
and Jews. In May eighteen otwo, he instituted the Legion of Honour
to encourage civilian and military achievements.The order is still the highest decoration in
France. He introduced three French constitutions, culminating in the reintroduction of a hereditary
monarchy and nobility. Napoleon's Civil Codeof Laws, known from eighteen oh seven,

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as the Napoleonic Code was implemented inMarch eighteen oh four. It was
prepared by committees of legal experts underthe supervision of Jean Jacques Regis de Cambasires,
the second Consul. Napoleon participated activelyin the sessions of the Council of
State that revised the drafts. TheCode introduced a clearly written and accessible set

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of national laws to replace the variousregional and customary law systems that had operated
in France. The Civil Code entrenchedthe principles of equality before the law,
religious toleration, secure property rights,equal inheritance for all legitimate children, and
the abolition of the vestiges of feudalism. However, it also reduced the rights

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of women and children and severely restrictedthe grounds for divorce. A criminal code
was promulgated in eighteen o eight,and eventually seven codes of law were produced
under Napoleon. The Napoleonic Code wascarried by Napoleon's armies across Europe and influenced
the law in many parts of theworld. Cobbon described it as the most
effective agency for the propagation of thebasic principles of the French Revolution. In

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the field of military organization, Napoleonborrowed from previous theorists such as Jacques Antoineipolyte
Comte de Guibert, and from thereforms of preceding French governments, and then
developed what was already in place.He continued the revolutionary policies of conscription and
promotion, based primarily on merit.Corps replaced divisions as the largest army units.

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Mobile artillery was integrated into reserve batteries, the staff system became more fluid,
and cavalry returned as an important formationin French military doctrine. These methods
are now referred to as essential featuresof Napoleonic warfare. Napoleon was regarded by
the influential military theorist Karl von Klausowitzas a genius in the art of war,

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and many historians rank him as agreat military commander. Wellington considered him
the greatest military commander of all time. Cobbon states that he showed his genius
in moving troops quickly and concentrating themon strategic points. Connor states that his
principles were to keep his forces united, keep no weak point unguarded, seize
important points quickly and sees his chance. Owen Connolly, however, states Napoleon's

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personal tactics defy analysis. He usedhis intuition, engaged his troops, and
reacted to what developed under Napoleon,a new emphasis towards the destruction, not
just out maneuvering of enemy armies emerged. Invasions of enemy territory occurred over broader
fronts, which made wars costlier andmore decisive. The political effect of war

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increased defeat for a European power meantmore than the loss of isolated enclaves near
Carthaginian pieces intertwined whole national efforts,intensifying the revolutionary phenomenon of total war.
The official introduction of the metric systemin September seventeen ninety nine was unpopular in
large sections of French society. Napoleon'srule greatly aided adoption of the new standard

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not only across France, but alsoacross the French sphere of influence. Napoleon
took a retrograde step in eighteen twelvewhen he passed legislation to introduce the messieurs
usuel's traditional units of measurement for retailtrade, a system of measure that resembled
the pre revolutionary units, but werebased on the kilogram and the meter.
For example, the livre metriceue metricpound was five hundred g in contrast to

(01:39:24):
the value of the livre du roisthe King's pound four eighty nine point five
g. Other units of measure wererounded in a similar manner prior to the
definitive introduction of the metric system acrossparts of Europe in the middle of the
nineteenth century. Napoleon's educational reforms laidthe foundation of a modern system of secondary

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and tertiary education in France and throughoutmuch of Europe. He synthesized academic elements
from the Ension regime, the Enlightenment, and the Revolution. His education laws
of eighteen o two left most primaryeducation in the hands of religious or communal
schools, which taught basic literacy andnumeracy for a minority of the population.

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He abolished the revolutionary central schools andreplaced them with secondary schools and elite lysys,
where the curriculum was based on reading, writing, mathematics, Latin natural
history, classics, and ancient history. He retained the revolutionary higher education system
with Grande Ecole in professions including law, medicine, pharmacy, engineering, and

(01:40:30):
school teaching. He introduced grandees ecolesin history and geography, but opposed one
in literature because it wasn't vocational.He also founded the Military Academy of Saint
Cyr. He promoted the advanced centers, such as the Ecole Polytechnique, that
provided both military expertise and advanced researchin science. In eighteen o eight,

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he founded the Imperial University, asupervisory body with control over curriculum and discipline.
The following year he introduced the baccaloor. The system was designed to produce
the efficient bureaucrats, technicians, professionals, and military officers that the Napoleonic state
required. It outperformed its European counterparts, many of which borrowed from the French

(01:41:13):
system. Female education, in contrast, was designed to be practical and religious,
based on home science, the Catechism, basic literacy and numeracy, and
enough science to eradicate superstition. Thereis debate over whether Napoleon was an enlightened
despot who laid the foundations of modernEurope or a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery

(01:41:35):
than any man before the Coming ofHitler. He was compared to Adolf Hitler
by Peter Guile in nineteen forty sevenand Cloud Ribbe in two thousand and five.
Most modern critics of Napoleon, however, reject the Hitler comparison, arguing
that Napoleon did not commit genocide anddid not engage in the mass murder and

(01:41:56):
imprisonment of his political opponents. Nevertheless, Bell and mcla then condemn his killing
of three thousand, five thousand Turkishprisoners of war in Syria. A number
of historians have argued that his expansionistforeign policy was a major factor in the
Napoleonic Wars, which cost six millionlives and caused economic disruption for a generation.
Mclein and Barnett suggest that Napoleon's reputationas a military genius is exaggerated.

(01:42:21):
Cobbon and Connor argue that Napoleon hadinsufficient regard for the lives of his soldiers
and that his battle tactics led toexcessive casualties. Critics also cite Napoleon's exploitation
of conquered territories to finance his wars. Napoleon increased taxes in levies of troops
from annex territories and satellite states.He also introduced discriminatory tariff policies which promoted

(01:42:45):
French trade at the expense of alliesand satellite states. He institutionalized plunder.
French museums contain art stolen by Napoleon'sforces from across Europe. Artifacts were brought
to the Mouset du Louver for aGrand Central Museum, an example which would
later be followed by others. Manyhistorians have criticized Napoleon's authoritarian rule, especially

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after eighteen o seven, which includedcensorship, the closure of independent newspapers,
the bypassing of direct elections and representativegovernment, the dismissal of judges showing independence,
and the exile of critics of theregime. Historians also blame Napoleon for
reducing the civil rights of women,children, and people of color, and

(01:43:27):
reintroducing the legal penalties of civil deathand confiscation of property. His reintroduction of
an hereditary monarchy and nobility remains controversial. His role in the Haitian Revolution and
decision to reinstate slavery in France's overseascolonies adversely affect his reputation eighteen fourteen English
caricature of Napoleon being exiled to Elba. The ex emperor is riding a donkey

(01:43:51):
backwards while holding a broken sword.Napoleon's use of propaganda contributed to his rise
to power, legitimate, made ithis regime, and established his image for
posterity. Strict censorship, controlling variouskey constituents of the press, books,
theater, and art were part ofhis propaganda scheme, aimed at portraying him

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as bringing desperately wanted peace and stabilityto France. The propagandistic rhetoric changed in
relation to events and to the atmosphereof Napoleon's reign, focusing first on his
role as a general in the army, an identification as a soldier, and
moving to his role as emperor anda civil leader, specifically targeting his civilian
audience. Napoleon fostered a relationship withthe contemporary art community, taking an active

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role in commissioning and controlling different formsof art production to suit his propaganda goals.
In England, Russia, and acrossEurope, though not in France,
Napoleon was a popular topic of caricatureHazarising two thousand and four explores how Napoleon's
image and memory are best understood.They played a key role in collect of
political defiance of the Bourbone Restoration monarchyin eighteen fifteen eighteen thirty. People from

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different walks of life and areas ofFrance, particularly Napoleonic veterans, drew on
the Napoleonic legacy and its connections withthe ideals of the seventeen eighty nine Revolution.
Widespread rumors of Napoleon's returned from SaintHelena and Napoleon as an inspiration for
patriotism, individual and collective liberties,and political mobilization. Manifested themselves in seditious

(01:45:27):
materials displaying the tricolor and rosettes.There were also subversive activities celebrating anniversaries of
Napoleon's life and reign and disrupting royalcelebrations. They demonstrated the prevailing and successful
goal of the varied supporters of Napoleonto constantly destabilize the Bourbone regime. Bas
relief of Napoleon in the Chamber ofthe United States House of Representatives. Napoleon

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was responsible for spreading the values ofthe French Revolution to other countries, especially
through the Napoleonic Code. After thefall of Napoleon, not only was it
retained by conquer countries, including theNetherlands, Belgium, parts of Italy and
Germany, but it has been usedas the basis of certain parts of law
outside Europe, including the Dominican Republic, the US state of Louisiana, and

(01:46:12):
the Canadian province of Quebec. TheCode was also used as a model in
many parts of Latin America. Thereputation of Napoleon in Poland has been favorable,
especially for his support of independence,opposition to Russia, his legal code,
the abolition of serfdom, and theintroduction of modern middle class administration.
Deeeder Langovisha described the Napoleonic Code asa revolutionary project that spurred the development of

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bourgeois society in Germany by the extensionof the right to own property and an
acceleration towards the end of feudalism.Napoleon reorganized what had been the Holy Roman
Empire, made up of about threehundred Klinstadii, into a more streamlined,
forty state Confederation of the Rhine.This helped promote the German Confederation and the

(01:46:59):
unification of Germany in eighteen seventy one. The movement toward Italian unification was similarly
precipitated by Napoleonic rule. These changescontributed to the development of nationalism in the
nation state. Napoleon directly overthrew remnantsof feudalism in much of western continental Europe.
He liberalized property laws, ended seignurialdues, abolished the Guild of Merchants

(01:47:21):
and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalizeddivorce, closed the Jewish ghettos, and
made Jews equal to everyone else.The Inquisition ended, as did the Holy
Roman Empire. The power of churchcourts and religious authority was sharply reduced,
and equality under the law was proclaimedfor all men. Napoleon indirectly began the

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process of Latin American independence when heinvaded Spain in eighteen o eight. The
abdication of King Charles the Fourth andrenunciation of his son Ferdinand the Seventh created
a power vacuum that was filled bynative born political leaders such as Simon Bolivar
and Jose de Saint Martin. Suchleaders embraced nationalistic sentiments influenced by French nationalism

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and led successful independence movements. InLatin America. Napoleon also significantly aided the
United States when he agreed to sellthe territory of Louisiana for fifteen million dollars
during the presidency of Thomas Jefferson.That territory almost doubled the size of the
United States, adding the equivalent ofthirteen states to the Union. From seventeen

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ninety six to twenty twenty, atleast ninety five major ships were named for
him. In the twenty first century, at least eighteen Napoleon ships are operated
under the flag of France, aswell as Indonesia, Germany, Italy,
Australia, Argentina, India, Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. By wanting
to make his dynasty the most ancientin Europe, Napoleon ousted numerous houses in

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favor of his own family. Talleyrancommented that either of these newly created sovereigns
respected his overarching plan and became itssatellites, which made it impossible for them
to take root in the sus countryentrusted to them, or they must reject
it. Each new creation thus becamea source of dissolution in Napoleon's fortune.

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Josephine first wife of Napoleon, obtainedthe civil dissolution of her marriage under the
Napoleonic Code. Painting by Henri Fredericchopin eighteen forty three. Marriage of Napoleon
and Marie Louise by George Rouge eighteenforty three. Napoleon was first engaged to
Desiree Clary, the younger sister ofhis brother Joseph's wife, in seventeen ninety

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five after meeting Josephine named Marie josephRose Tacher de la Pagerie. Later that
year, he broke off the engagementto Desiree. He then married Josephine in
seventeen ninety six at the age oftwenty six. Josephine was a thirty two
year old widow whose first husband,Alexandra de Boharnay, had been executed during

(01:49:49):
the Reign of Terror. Five daysafter Alexandra de Boharney's death, the Reign
of Terror initiator Maximilian de Robespierre wasoverthrown and n executed, and with the
help of high placed friends, Josephinewas freed. Until she met Bonaparte,
she had been known as Rose,a name which he disliked. He called
her Josephine instead, and she wentby this name henceforth. Bonaparte often sent

(01:50:14):
her love letters while on his campaigns. He formally adopted her son Eugene and
second cousin via marriage, Stephanie,and arranged dynastic marriages for them. Josephine
had her daughter Hortense, marry Napoleon'sbrother Louis. Josephine had lovers such as
Lieutenant Hippolyte Charles. During Napoleon's Italiancampaign, Napoleon learned of that affair,

(01:50:35):
and a letter he wrote about itwas intercepted by the British and published widely
to embarrass Napoleon. Napoleon had hisown affairs too. During the Egyptian campaign,
he took Pauline Belliol four, thewife of a junior officer, as
his mistress. She became known asCleopatra. While Napoleon's mistresses had children by

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him, his marriage to Josephine didnot produce an air, possibly because of
either the stresses of her imprisonment duringthe Reign of Terror or an abortion she
may have had in her twenties.Napoleon chose divorce so he could remarry in
search of an heir. Despite hisdivorce from Josephine, Napoleon showed his dedication
to her for the rest of hislife. When he heard the news of

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her death while in exile in Elba, he locked himself in his room and
would not come out for two fulldays. Her name would also be his
final word on his death bed ineighteen twenty one. On eleven March eighteen
ten, by proxy, he marriedthe nineteen year old Marie Louise, Archduchess
of Austria and a great niece ofMarie Antoinette. Thus he had married into

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a German royal and imperial family.Louise was less than happy with the arrangement,
at least at first, stating justto see the man would be the
worst form of torture. Her greataunt had been executed in France, while
Napoleon had fought numerous campaigns against Austriaall throughout his military career. However,
she seemed to warm up to himover time. After her wedding, she

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wrote to her father, he lovesme very much. I respond to his
love sincerely. There is something veryfetching and very eager about him that is
impossible to resist. Napoleon and MarieLouise remained married until his death, though
she did not join him in exileon Elba and thereafter never saw her husband
again. The couple had one child, Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles eighteen eleven that

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eighteen thirty two. Known from birthas the King of Rome, he became
Napoleon the Second in eighteen fourteen andreigned for only two weeks. He was
awarded the title of the Duke ofReichstadt in eighteen eighteen and died of tuberculosis
age twenty one, with no children. Napoleon acknowledged one illegitimate son, Charles
Leon eighteen o six eighteen eighty one, by Eleonore Denuel de la Plain Alexandra

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Kolonowalevski eighteen ten eighteen sixty eight,the son of his Polish mistress Maria Walevska,
Although acknowledged by Wileevska's husband was alsowidely known to be his child,
and the DNA of his direct maledescendant has been used to help confirm Napoleon's
y chromosome haplatype. He may havehad further unacknowledged illegitimate offspring as well,

(01:53:15):
such as Eugen Megerleovon Muelfeld by EmilyVictoria Kraus von Wolfsberg and Helene Napoleone Bonaparte
eighteen sixteen nineteen o seven by Albinde Montalon