18. The Shadowy Succession - Peter's Immediate Heirs

In the twilight of first-century Rome, the early papacy emerges as a historical mystery. This episode examines the contested evidence surrounding Peter's immediate successors – Linus, Anacletus, and Clement – whose leadership established the foundations of papal succession amid persecution and uncertainty. Archaeological discoveries, contradictory ancient lists, and later hagiographies reveal both the fragility and resilience of Christianity's earliest leadership structure as it evolved from charismatic movement to institutional church.

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Episode Transcript

Speaker 1 (00:03):
Caloroga shark media. When tourists visit Saint Peter's Basilica in
Vatican City, they invariably flock to Michelangelo's Pietar, Bernini's elaborate canopy,
and the magnificent Dome. Few noticed the simple altar in

(00:24):
the North Aisle dedicated to a man named Linus. Even
fewer could tell you who he was. Yet, according to
ancient tradition, this obscure figure may have been the second Pope,
the immediate successor to Peter himself. This is White Smoke

(00:47):
Episode eighteen. The Shadowy Succession. The first century of papal
history exists in a historical twilight, not completely dark, but
illuminated only by fragmentary texts, conflicting accounts, and archaeological evidence

(01:08):
that raises as many questions as it answers. This murky
period challenges one of the Catholic Church's most fundamental claims,
that an unbroken line of succession extends from the current
Pope all the way back to Saint Peter, who Catholics
believe was appointed by Jesus Christ himself. Today we examine

(01:28):
the earliest papal succession, the shadowy figures who led the
Roman Church in the decades immediately following Peter's death, and
whose contested legacies reveal both the fragility and resilience of
the world's oldest continuously functioning institution. This is the story
of how a persecuted religious minority established a leadership structure

(01:49):
that would eventually become the papacy as we know it today.
To understand the first Papal succession, we must first confront
the uncertain circumstances of Peace Peter's own death. According to
Catholic tradition, Peter, one of Jesus' original twelve Apostles, traveled
to Rome, led the Christian community there, and was crucified

(02:11):
upside down during Emperor Nero's persecution around sixty four to
sixty seven CE. The Vatican holds that Saint Peter Peter's
Basilica stands directly above his burial site. Archaeological evidence partially
supports this narrative. Excavations beneath Saint Peter's Basilica in the
nineteen forties uncovered what the Vatican claims are Peter's remains,

(02:34):
buried beneath a monument dated to approximately one hundred SIXTYCEE However,
the archaeological record remains contested, with some scholars questioning whether
the bones actually belonged to Peter and whether he held
a position equivalent to pope as we would understand it today.
The historical Peter and the theological Peter are not identical,

(02:56):
explains doctor Rebecca Lyman, Professor Emeritor of Tans Church History
at the Church Divinity School of the Pacific. The Peter
of Catholic tradition, the first pope who governed the universal Church,
emerged gradually through later interpretation. The historical Peter was likely
an important leader in the early Christian movement, but papal

(03:17):
authority as we know it developed over centuries. What seems
reasonably certain is that Peter was an influential figure in
the early Roman Christian community and that his martyrdom created
a leadership vacuum. How that vacuum was filled remains one
of the most contested questions in church history. The earliest
attempt to document papal succession comes from Irenaeus, Bishop of Leon,

(03:41):
who around one EIGHTCEE compiled a list of those who
had led the Roman Church. He named Linus as Peter's
immediate successor, followed by Anacletus, sometimes called Cletus and then Clement. However,
other ancient sources present different orderings, with some suggesting immediately
followed Peter. The Lieber Pontificalis Book of Popes, compiled centuries later,

(04:08):
states that Linus led the Roman Church from approximately sixty
seven to seventy nine CE. It describes him as an
Italian from Tuscany who implemented several church practices, including prohibiting
women from entering churches with uncovered heads. According to this account,
Linus was martyred and buried near Peter's tomb on the

(04:28):
Vatican Hill. Yet historical evidence for Linus remains frustratingly sparse.
No contemporary documents mention him, and our knowledge comes entirely
from sources written a century or more after his presumed death.
Even his martyrdom claimed in some later accounts remains unverified
by convincing historical evidence. We must acknowledge the historical limitations here,

(04:54):
notes doctor Michael Peppod, professor of theology at Fordham University.
These earlier most succession lists were created not primarily as
historical documents, but as arguments for apostolic legitimacy against competing
Christian groups, they established a connection to the apostles that
validated particular teachings and authority structures. This theological motivation doesn't

(05:18):
necessarily invalidate the lists, but it requires careful historical assessment.
The actual leadership structure of the early Roman Church was
likely more fluid than later accounts suggest, with multiple forms
of authority operating simultaneously. To understand what leadership of the
Roman Church might have meant during Linus's time, we must

(05:38):
abandon modern conceptions of the papacy. The early Christian community
in Rome was not a unified, centralized institution, but a
collection of house churches, small gatherings that met in private
homes for worship, instruction and communal meals. Recent archaeological evidence
suggests these house churches of operated relatively independently, sometimes with

(06:02):
distinct theological emphasis and social compositions. Some may have primarily
comprised Jewish Christians, others gentile converts. Some may have emphasized
charismatic gifts, others hierarchical order. The bishop of Rome in
this period was more like a coordinator among equals than

(06:23):
a supreme pontiff, explains doctor Carolinosiek, professor Emerita of New
Testament at Bright Divinity School. He would have been recognized
as an important leader, particularly in mediating disputes, but not
as possessing the kind of juridical authority. Later popes claimed
this leadership role emerged in a Rome still reeling from

(06:45):
the Great Fire of sixty four CE a Nero's subsequent
persecution of Christians, which claimed both Peter and Paul. According
to tradition, Christians remained a tiny, vulnerable minority in a
city of nearly a million people, constantly under suspicion as
practitioners of a foreign superstition that rejected traditional Roman religious practices.

(07:08):
Under these dangerous conditions, maintaining a low profile would have
been essential. Linus likely focused on basic community organization, preserving
apostolic teaching, and addressing internal disputes, rather than making public
pronouncements or engaging with Roman authorities. The archaeological record confirms
this picture of an underground church. The earliest Christian meeting

(07:32):
places were ordinary homes, not purpose built structures. The catacombs,
while later used for Christian burial, were not primarily hiding
places for persecuted believers, as popular imagination suggests. The Roman
Church under Linus was hidden in plain sight, unassuming gatherings
in private dwellings throughout the city. After Linus, ancient sources

(07:57):
indicate that leadership passed to a figure named annak E Cletus,
sometimes called Cletus, possibly representing the same person or two
different individuals. According to the Libert Pontificalis, Anacletus was a
Greek from Athens who led the Roman Church from approximately
seventy nine to ninety two CE. Like Linus, Anacletus remains

(08:20):
historically elusive. Later traditions credit him with ordaining priests and
establishing commemorative monuments to Peter, but contemporary evidence for his
activities is nonexistent. Even his name presents difficulties, with variations
appearing in different ancient lists. The confusion between Cletus and

(08:42):
Anacletus likely stems from textual transmission issues, suggests dr am
And Duffy, Professor emeritus of Christian History at Cambridge University
and author of Saints and Sinnus, a History of the Popes.
Names were abbreviated in manuscripts, leading to missis interpretations. Whether
they were the same person or different individuals remains unresolved.

(09:07):
This uncertainty underscores the historical challenges in reconstructing this period.
We are dealing not with clearly documented succession, but with
traditions recorded generations later potentially shaped by theological concerns and
manuscript corruption. What we can reasonably infer is that the
Roman Christian community continued developing organizational structures during this period.

(09:30):
Leadership roles became more defined, rituals more standardized, and connections
with other Christian communities more systematic. The foundations for what
would eventually become the institutional Church were being laid, even
if they bore little resemblance to the later papacy. With Clement,
who allegedly led the Roman Church from approximately ninety two

(09:52):
to ninety nine, ce we encountered the first early pope
who left written evidence of his leadership. Around ninety six,
Clement wrote a letter to the Christian community in Corinth
addressing an internal dispute where younger members had deposed older
church leaders. This document, known as First Clement, provides our

(10:13):
earliest glimpse into how the Roman Church understood its authority
in relation to other Christian communities. Clement intervenes in Corinth's
affairs with confidence urging restoration of the deposed leaders, and
establishment of proper order. Clement's letter demonstrates that by the
end of the first century, the Roman Church already claimed

(10:34):
a special role in mediating disputes, explains doctor Alan Brent,
former professor of Early Christian History and Literature at Cambridge University. However,
the basis of this authority was not juridical primacy, but
rather Rome's status as a church founded by both Peter
and Paul, its location in the imperial capital, and its

(10:54):
reputation for doctrinal reliability. The letter emphasizes at aostolic succession
not as a linear chain of individual bishops, but as
a collective preservation of teaching transmitted from the apostles to
qualified elders. It suggests a leadership model still in transition
from the charismatic authority of first generation apostles to the

(11:17):
institutional authority of established church offices. Clement's letter also reveals
a Christian community developing sophisticated theological language and organizational concepts.
It draws on both Hebrew scriptures and Greco Roman administrative terminology,
creating a distinctive Christian synthesis that would characterize later ecclesiastical development.

(11:42):
Despite this significant written evidence, Clement himself remains somewhat mysterious.
Later traditions claim he was exiled under Emperor Trajan and
martyred by being tied to an anchor and thrown into
the Black Sea, but these accounts appear in sources written
centuries after his death. The Basilica of San Clemente in Rome,

(12:02):
which supposedly stands above his house, actually dates from much
later periods, though archaeological excavations beneath it have revealed first
century structures. When discussing these early church leaders, we encounter
a fundamental terminological problem. The ancient sources, even when describing
the same individuals, don't consistently use the title pope or

(12:25):
even bishop as we understand these terms today. The word
pope from Latin papa, meaning father, was initially used for
any bishop or priest, and became exclusively associated with the
Bishop of Rome only in later centuries. Similarly, the distinction
between bishops and presbyters elders remained fluid in the first century,

(12:48):
with the terms sometimes used interchangeably. The monarchical episcopate, the
model of a single bishop governing a local church, assisted
by presbyters and deacons developed gradually, notes doctor x adam Ployd,
Professor of Church History, but Eden theological Seminary in Rome.
This structure may not have been fully established until the

(13:09):
middle of the second century, making it anachronistic to speak
of popes in the modern sense before that time. This
evolving terminology reflects an evolving reality. Early church leadership adapted
to changing circumstances, incorporating elements from Jewish synagogue governance, Greco
Roman household management, and the charismatic authority of apostolic witnesses.

(13:34):
What would eventually become the papacy emerged through this complex
developmental process, rather than springing fully formed from Peter's appointment.
Many details of these earliest pope's lives come not from
contemporary sources, but from later hagiographies, stylized biographies of saints
that often prioritized edification over historical accuracy. These accounts, written

(13:59):
centuries after the events they purport to describe, filled historical
gaps with standardized narratives of virtue and martyrdom. The Liber
pontificalis compiled primarily in the sixth century with later additions,
represents the most comprehensive early attempt to provide biographies for
all popes. For these earliest figures, it presents suspiciously precise

(14:23):
details exact rain lengths, liturgical innovations, ordination numbers, and burial locations.
Most historians regard these specific claims with skepticism. This retroactive
history writing served important institutional purposes. By the sixth century,
the papacy had emerged as a significant religious and political authority,

(14:47):
claiming jurisdiction over the Western Church. A continuous succession narrative
connecting contemporary popes directly to Peter provided essential legitimacy for
these expanding claims. For the Catholic Church, this murky early

(15:08):
period presents both challenges and opportunities. The traditional Catholic position
maintains that Jesus established the papacy by appointing Peter as
the first pope, and that an unbroken succession has continued
from Peter through all subsequent popes. This view sees historical
ambiguities as superficial problems that don't undermine the essential continuity

(15:30):
of the institution. The Catholic understanding includes both historical facts
and theological interpretation, explains doctor Matthew Bunsen, executive editor of
the Catholic News Agency. The Church acknowledges historical development in
how papal authority was exercised, but maintains that the essential
office was established by Christ and preserved through succession despite

(15:54):
limited historical documentation. Historical critics, by contrast, seek the papacy
as a gradually evolving institution that retroactively claimed apostolic foundation.
They point to the lack of contemporary evidence for a
monarchical episcopate in first century Rome and the competing leadership
models evident in early Christian documents. The historical evidence suggests

(16:18):
that mone episcopacy rule by a single bishop developed in
Rome later than in some other Christian centers, notes doctor
Candida Moss, Professor of theology at the University of Birmingham.
The idea of the pope as universal head of the
church emerged even later through a complex process of institutional
development and theoretical elaboration. These contrasting perspectives represent different approaches

(16:44):
to history itself. The providential view emphasizes continuity beneath surface
changes and interprets gaps in historical evidence through the lens
of faith. Critical history emphasizes contextual development and requires explicit
everydudence for specific claims. Rather than simply choosing sides in
this debate, we might recognize that both approaches capture important

(17:08):
dimensions of this complex history. The papacy indeed emerged through
gradual historical processes shaped by specific cultural contexts. Yet it
also demonstrated remarkable institutional continuity and adaptive resilience that purely
secular explanations struggled to fully account for. Despite their historical obscurity,

(17:30):
these earliest popes established precedents that would shape the institution
for centuries. Their leadership during persecution demonstrated the Church's capacity
to survive under hostile conditions. Their mediation in disputes established
Rome's role in promoting unity among Christian communities. Their preservation
of apostolic teaching created mechanisms for doctrinal continuity across generations.

(17:57):
The shadowy succession from Peter through Linus, Anacletus, and Clement
established patterns that would be elaborated by their successors. Their
legacy lives on not primarily through biographical details or specific decisions,
but through the institutional continuity. They helped establish a continuity

(18:18):
that connects the modern papacy. However, indirectly to Christianity's earliest generations.
White Smoke is a production of Calaoga Shark media, portions
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