21. Theology and Power - The Papacy After Constantine

As Christianity became the empire's favored religion, theological debates took on political dimensions. This episode explores how popes from Julius I to Damasus I navigated the Arian controversy that divided the 4th-century church while developing more explicit theories of Roman primacy. The imprisoned Pope Liberius, the violent election of Damasus, and the emerging concept of papal decretals reveal how doctrinal conflicts shaped institutional authority in lasting ways as the papacy claimed both theological leadership and administrative power.


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Episode Transcript

Speaker 1 (00:03):
Caalarogu Shark Media. In the year three hundred thirty six CE,
Pope Sylvester died after presiding over the most dramatic transformation
in the Papercy's history. The office he left behind bore

(00:23):
little resemblance to the one he had inherited twenty two
years earlier, where his predecessors had led an illegal religion
From the shadows. Sylvester had become the Bishop of Magnificent Basilicus,
the recipient of imperial patronage, and the leader of a
church rapidly becoming the empire's dominant faith. But as his
successors would discover, this transformation introduced new challenges alongside its opportunities.

(00:49):
Once theological disagreements became matters of state policy, doctrinal disputes
took on political dimensions that drew popes into complex power
struggles throughout the empire. The papacy now operated in a
religious landscape where emperors convened councils, exiled uncooperative bishops, and
sometimes imposed their own theological preferences regardless of ecclesiastical opinion.

(01:14):
Today we examine how the post Constantinian papacy navigated these
new challenges, particularly through the Aryan controversy that dominated fourth
century Christianity. We explore how popes asserted authority in doctrinal disputes,
how they positioned themselves between competing theological factions, and how
they developed more explicit theories of Roman primacy. This is

(01:38):
the story of how theological conflicts shaped papal power after
Constantine's Revolution. This is White Smoke, Episode twenty one. Theology
and power. As Christianity moved from persecuted sect to imperial religion,

(02:00):
theological disputes took on new political dimensions. The most significant
of these was the Aryan controversy, a complex debate about
Christ's nature and relationship to God the Father that dominated
fourth century church politics. Named after Arius, a priest from
Alexandria whose teachings emphasized Christ's subordination to God the Father,

(02:23):
the controversy quickly spread throughout the Eastern Empire and eventually
to Rome. Constantine, concerned primarily with church unity rather than
theological precision, convened the Council of Nicia in three hundred
twenty five CE to resolve the dispute, resulting in the
famous Nicene Creed affirming Christ's full divinity For the papacy.

(02:45):
This controversy created complex challenges. Pope Sylvester sent representatives to Nicia,
but did not attend personally. His successor, Julius, more actively
asserted Roman authority in the ongoing dispute, abiding refuge to
Athanasius of Alexandria, the leading Antiarian theologian who had been
exiled from his see. Julius's support for Athanasius represents an

(03:11):
important assertion of papal authority in doctrinal disputes, explains doctor
Lewis Ayres, professor of Catholic and Historical theology at Durham University.
By welcoming the exiled bishop and declaring his deposition invalid,
Julius claimed a right to intervene in Eastern ecclesiastical affairs
based on Rome's apostolic authority. This assertion met significant resistance

(03:37):
from Eastern bishops, who rejected Julius's intervention as unwarranted interference.
The resulting tension revealed fundamental differences in how Eastern and
Western churches understood authority. Western tradition increasingly emphasized Rome's primacy
based on its connection to Peter, while Eastern tradition emphasized

(03:57):
the collective authority of bishops and the special status of
all apostolic sees. The controversy grew more complex under Pope Liberius,
who faced direct imperial pressure when Emperor Constantius the Second,
who favoured the Aryan position, demanded he condemn Athanasius. When
Liberius refused, he was exiled and an anti pope, Felix

(04:19):
the second, was installed in Rome. According to some accounts,
Liberius eventually compromised and signed a semiarian formula to secure
his return, though the historical details remain contested. The Liberius
episode reveals the papacy's vulnerability to imperial pressure despite its
growing institutional strength, notes doctor Jeffrey Dunn. When papal positions

(04:44):
conflicted with imperial priorities, popes could still face exile or deposition,
demonstrating the limits of church independence in this transitional period.
This complex interaction between theology and politics continued under Pope
to Mussus, whose election occurred amid violent conflicts between his
supporters and those of a rival claimant. Ursinus Demasus eventually

(05:09):
secured his position with imperial support and firmly aligned the
papacy with the Nicene position against various forms of Arianism.
Under Damasus, papal claims to primacy became more explicit and theoretical.
His confidante Jerome famously articulated the principle that the Church's
salvation depends on the dignity of the high priest, the Pope,

(05:32):
whose judgment carried universal authority. This developing theory of papal primacy,
though not yet fully elaborated, laid foundations for later medieval
claims of universal jurisdiction. The Aryan controversy thus served as
a crucible for developing papal authority. Through the complex negotiations
between theological principle and political reality, the papacy gradually defined

(05:57):
its role as both doctrinal arbiter and institute utional leader,
establishing patterns that would shape its subsequent development for centuries.
Pope Damasus perhaps best embodies the transitional papacy's complex development.
His pontificate consolidated many elements of the post Constantinian papal
model and established patterns that would define the office for

(06:20):
centuries to come. Demasus's controversial election itself reflected Christianity's changing status.
Two factions supported different candidates, with Demasis representing those more
closely aligned with the Imperial court and secular elites. Violent
clashes reportedly resulted in over one hundred deaths before Damasus

(06:41):
secured his position with imperial support, a stark contrast to
the community based selection processes of earlier periods. Once established,
Demasus systematically enhanced papal prestige and authority. He extensively renovated
and monumentalized Martyr's shrines throughout Rome, creating pilgrimage destinations that

(07:02):
emphasized the city's sacred character. His famous inscriptions at these
sites explicitly linked Rome's sanctity to its Apostolic foundations in
Peter and Paul, thereby reinforcing papal claims to special authority.
Damasus effectively created a sacred topography for Christian Rome, explains
doctor Marie Anne Sagi, historian at Central European University. By

(07:27):
developing Martyr's shrines and connecting them to Apostolic authority, he
established a spiritual geography that paralleled and ultimately superseded traditional
Pagan sacred sites. This physical transformation symbolized Christianity's new cultural dominance.
Damasus also strengthened institutional structures. He regularized the system of

(07:49):
tituli churches distributed throughout Rome's regions that administered sacraments and
charitable services. He enhanced the role of deacons in administering
church properties and charitable programs. He established more formal protocols
for communication between Rome and other churches, laying groundwork for
what would later develop into the papal Chancery. Perhaps most significantly,

(08:14):
Demasus articulated a more explicit theory of Roman primacy. Working
with his secretary Jerome, he promoted the concept that Rome
possessed unique authority based on its connection to both Peter
and Paul. In correspondence with other churches, he increasingly presented
Roman positions as normative rather than merely advisory, expecting compliance

(08:37):
rather than merely consultation. De Massus represents the crucial bridge
between the persecuted and Imperial Church, notes doctor Jeffrey Dunn.
While maintaining continuity with earlier papal traditions, he fundamentally reimagined
the office for a new context. The institutional structures, cultural productions,

(08:57):
and theoretical claims he developed which shaped the papacy throughout
the subsequent millennium. This reimagining wasn't merely pragmatic adaptation, but
reflected theological conviction that the church's new status manifested divine providence.
For d Masus and many contemporaries, Constantine's conversion and Christianity's

(09:19):
subsequent rise represented God's validation of the faith after centuries
of persecution. This triumphalist interpretation justified the church's embrace of
imperial partnership and cultural authority as fulfillment of its mission
rather than compromise. Yet, Demasus's pontificate also reveals continuing limitations

(09:40):
on papal power. He failed to resolve ongoing chisms within
the Roman community itself. His authority was still largely confined
to the Western Church, with Eastern bishops often resistant to
his interventions, and he remained dependent on imperial support for
maintaining his position, revealing the papacy continuing vulnerability despite its

(10:02):
growing institutional strength. Under Damasus and his immediate successors, the
papacy developed administrative practices and theological positions that would define
the office for centuries. Several key innovations illustrate this transformation.
The papal decretl Pope Ciritius, who succeeded de Massis in

(10:24):
three hundred eighty four issued what is considered the first
papal decretal, a formal document giving directives to other churches
with an explicitly legislative character. Addressed to Bishop Hymerius of
Tarragona in Spain, this document not only answered specific questions
but established general rules for church governance. Unlike earlier papal

(10:46):
letters that primarily offered advice or mediated disputes, Ciritius's decretal
assumed authority to establish binding church discipline. Its tone and
format resembled imperial rescripts, suggesting conscious modeling on imperial administrative forms.
This documentary innovation created a textual basis for expanding papal

(11:08):
jurisdiction beyond rome itself doctrinal development, The papacy increasingly positioned
itself as the final arbiter of doctrinal disputes. When theological
controversies arose not just arianism, but questions about the Holy Spirit,
the relationship between Christ's human and divine natures, and various

(11:29):
sacramental practices, Pope's issued authoritative statements that claim to represent
the authentic Apostolic tradition. Pope Innocent articulated this role, explicitly
stating that major controversies should be referred to Rome for
definitive judgment because Peter's authority continued through his successes. This claim,

(11:49):
though not universally accepted, particularly in the East, established a
precedent for papal doctrinal authority that would develop further in
subsequent centuries. Liturgical standardization. The post Constantinian papacy increasingly standardized
liturgical practices, both within Rome and gradually throughout the Western Church.

(12:13):
Archaeological and textual evidence shows more uniform church layouts, altar arrangements,
and ceremonial elements emerging during this period. Papal practices became
models that other churches increasingly adopted or adapted. This liturgical
influence extended beyond formal worship to the church calendar, saints, commemorations,

(12:34):
and sacramental procedures. While regional variations persisted, the Roman pattern
increasingly functioned as a normative reference point, enhancing papal cultural
authority alongside institutional power a representative system. As the church
expanded geographically and organizationally, popes developed systems for extending their

(12:55):
authority beyond Rome. Papal legates representatives with d delegated authority
began appearing at councils and courts throughout the Empire. Bishops
in certain regions were designated as papal vicars, exercising oversight
on the pope's behalf. Pope Seilstein developed this system further,

(13:16):
establishing more formal protocols for papal representation and delegation. These
arrangements extended papal reach without requiring the pope's personal presence,
creating administrative connections that bound distant churches more closely to
Rome Peatrain theology. Throughout this period, popes increasingly grounded their
authority claims in the Peatraine theory, the concept that Christ

(13:40):
had given special authority to Peter based on Matthew sixteen
that passed to his successors as bishops of Rome. This
theological position, elaborated by popes and their supporters, provided religious
legitimation for expanding papal jurisdiction. Pope Leo developed this theory
most systematically, arguing that Peter lives and exercises judgment in

(14:03):
his successors. His famous sermons asserted that the pope acts
not just as Peter's representative, but in some sense as
Peter himself, exercising the apostles divinely granted authority in each generation.
These innovations collectively transformed the papacy from local episcopate to
trans regional authority, establishing foundations for what would later develop

(14:27):
into the medieval papal monarchy. While implementation remained inconsistent and contested,
the conceptual framework for expanded papal authority was firmly established
by the late fifth century. Just as the post Constantinian
papacy reached new heights of institutional development under figures like
Damasus and his successors, external events dramatically altered its context.

(14:53):
In four hundred ten CE, Rome was sacked by Visigothic
forces under Alaric, the first time in nearly eight centuries
that the eternal city had fallen to enemy forces. This
traumatic event, while not directly targeting the papacy, fundamentally shook
Roman self understanding and challenged Christian claims that imperial adoption

(15:14):
of the faith had secured divine protection for the empire.
Pope Innocent the First was temporarily absent from the city
during the sack, but returned to a physically damaged and
psychologically traumatized Rome. The sack of Rome represented both practical
and theological challenges for the papacy, explains doctor Michelle Salzmann.

(15:35):
Beyond physical destruction of churches and disruption of ecclesiastical administration,
it raised profound questions about divine providence and the Church's
relationship to imperial power. If Christianity couldn't protect Rome itself,
what did this mean for the faith's claims. These questions
intensified as the Western Empire continued its slow collapse throughout

(15:57):
the fifth century. Successive popes faced deteriorating political conditions, reduced
financial resources, and increasing pressure from Germanic kingdoms establishing control
over former imperial territories. The institutional structures and authority claims
developed during the Constantinian period now faced severe practical tests.

(16:18):
Pope Leo navigated these challenges with remarkable skill. When Attila
the hun threatened Rome in four hundred fifty two, ce
Leo famously met him near Mantua and somehow persuaded him
to withdraw. Though later accounts embellished this meeting with miraculous elements,
it demonstrated the pope's emerging role as Rome's defender When

(16:39):
imperial protection failed. Three years later, when vandal forces under
Genseric captured Rome, Leo again negotiated with the invaders, Though
unable to prevent the city's occupation, he reportedly convinced Genseric
to refrain from massacre and burning. These diplomatic interventions established
precedents for paper political action independent of imperial authority, a

(17:03):
role that would expand as imperial power receded. Leo's actions
during these crises reveal a fundamental transition in papal self
understanding notes Dakota, George, Demicopolis. While still theoretically acknowledging imperial authority,
the papacy increasingly acted as an independent power when necessary.

(17:25):
This practical independence, forced by circumstances, laid foundations for later
medieval developments in papal temporal authority. This evolving relationship with
secular power paralleled developments in theological authority. Leo's famous tome
addressing Christological controversies presented papal pronouncements as definitive interpretations of

(17:48):
Apostolic tradition, while his sermons explicitly connected papal authority to
Peter's primacy among the Apostles. In both practical governance and
doctrinal leadership, Leo exc txemplified the fully developed post Constantinian papacy,
adapting to a world where imperial support was increasingly unreliable.

(18:16):
By the late fifth century, the papacy had undergone a
second transformation nearly as significant as its initial emergence from
the Catacombs under Constantine. From being a client institution dependent
on imperial favour, it had become increasingly self reliant amidst
imperial decline. The institutional structures, theological positions, and authority claims

(18:38):
developed in more favorable circumstances, now enabled the papacy to
navigate a world where Roman imperial power was collapsing in
the West. The papacy that emerged from the post Constantinian
period was fundamentally different from both its persecuted predecessor and
its early imperial form, observes doctor George Democropolis. The pope

(18:59):
remained the Bishop of Rome and leader of its Christian community,
but now operated with expanded institutional resources, more explicitly articulated
authority claims, and increasing practical independence from imperial oversight. This
transformed papacy carried both enhanced capabilities and new challenges into
the subsequent period. Enhanced prestige and organizational development enabled greater theological, liturgical,

(19:26):
and administrative influence throughout Western Christianity, but closer identification with
Roman civilization created tensions with the Germanic kingdoms that increasingly
controlled former imperial territories. The Papal Revolution of the fourth
and fifth centuries thus established patterns that would define the
institution throughout subsequent history. The tension between spiritual mission and

(19:50):
institutional power, the balance between independence and political partnership, the
relationship between Roman particularity and universal claims, the integration of
humble Christian origins with grand imperial forms. As the Western
Roman Empire completed its collapse in four hundred seventy six CE,

(20:10):
this transformed papacy would face new challenges that would test
both its imperial adaptations and its developing independence. Its capacity
to navigate these challenges, preserving essential continuity while adapting to
radically changing circumstances would demonstrate the enduring significance of both
its underground origins and its imperial transformation. White Smoke is

(20:34):
a production of Calaroga shark media, portions of which were
made with the help of al Narration