SYMHC Classics: Paxton's Crystal Palace

A throwback to 2013! Sir Joseph Paxton was a 19th-century botanist who became instantly famous for the hall he designed for the Great Expo of 1851. After the expo, the Crystal Palace moved to a new location and became the centerpiece of the world's first theme park.

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Episode Transcript

Speaker 1 (00:02):
Happy Saturday. This week we talked about Andrew Crosses fascinating
and eccentric electricity experiments, and towards the end we mentioned
that he and his second wife took a trip to
the Great Exposition of eighteen fifty one, which was housed
in Paxton's Crystal Palace. So naturally, this seemed like a
good time to bring back our episode on the Crystal Palace.

(00:24):
That episode came out all the way back on August,
and at the end of that episode we mentioned a
plan to rebuild it. That effort failed, but as of
eighteen the developer hoped it's still might work out one day.
I can only presume a pandemic put those plans on
the back burner for some time. Yeah, I was not

(00:44):
able to find an update more recently than so we
shall see enjoy. Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class,
a production of I Heart Radio. Hello, and welcome to
the podcast. I'm and I'm Tracy Wilson, and today we're

(01:08):
going to talk about a famous piece of architecture. Uh
and some pieces of architecture seemed to have nothing but
bad luck, and today's topic could probably be filed under
luck comma bad but it didn't start out that way.
It's it's beginnings were quite lovely and pretty glorious and um,
you know, filled with success. Yeah, the right of bad
luck was definitely a later part of its history. Yes,

(01:30):
when the building moved, which is one of those things
that doesn't happen very often, but in this case, uh,
it did. And it was a gloriously beautiful structure which
was called the Crystal Palace. And that's a name that's
been attributed to many, many buildings, but this is kind
of the Crystal Palace, all capital letters. Yes. Uh So
first we'll talk a little bit about the architect behind it,

(01:52):
who did not actually start out as an architect. No,
and this this led to some concerns. Yeah. So it
was Sir josh of Paxton. He was a nineteenth century
English botanist and then later an architect. He designed um
met More towers in a famous hot house which was
called the Great Stove at Chatsworth, and he also designed gardens.

(02:16):
And there is a piece called Bourgeois and Aristocratic Cultural
Encounters in Garden Art of fifteen fifty to eighteen fifty.
And in that piece, Margaret Flanders Darby says that Paxton
quote is celebrated as the very definition of nineteenth century
upward mobility because he started out humble and ended up
pretty celebrated. Yeah. He was born on August third, eighteen

(02:38):
o one in Bedfordshire to a farm family and when
he was young he worked for the Duke of Devonshire
as a gardener at Chiswick Gardens. In eighteen twenty six,
he had cultivated this friendship with the Duke and really
impressed him with his horticultural whiles. So at that point
he was assigned to the post of Superintendent of Ardens

(03:00):
at the Duke's estate in Derbyshire known as Chatsworth. Some
of the elements of the garden designs that he created there, uh,
and what's called the classic mixed style still exist and
they're at Chatsworth. Paxton designed and built a greenhouse for
the Duke, that's the one we referenced earlier called the
which is sometimes casually called the Great Stove because it

(03:20):
was a hothouse. Uh. And he also created these really
impressive fountains. He built a model village there. Uh. He
was very busy creating a lot of structures for the
garden and the grounds, and one of his greatest accomplishments
was that he was able to keep this exotic lily
cutting that he got from Guiana not just alive but thriving.

(03:40):
The leaves were allegedly twelve feet wide, so if you
can wrap your brain around that, there is a picture
of his daughter sitting on one of them. That was
just this amazing accomplishment considering that this was England, which
is not really where you think about these giant, sort
of exotic lilies growing. Uh. And he had built at
this specialized house with the heated pool, which was quite

(04:02):
new to the idea of gardening. And he was obviously
an extremely clever man, and he had this innate and
ability to solve problems in really creative ways. But he
also had an eye for the visual element, because often
these creative problem solving situations were also just visually stunning.
In eighteen forty nine, Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Albert, who

(04:26):
was also the president of the Royal Society of Arts,
launched this plan to host an exhibition to showcase Great
Britain's industrial achievements. He managed to get funding for the
project really quickly. Most of that funding came from quick
Queen Victoria and he planned a site for the expo
at Hyde Park. So designers were asked to submit their

(04:48):
ideas for a structure for the show to the Industrial
Exhibition Executive Committee. So it was a little bit of
a design contest, uh, And there were numerous challenges for
architects to deal with if they wanted to submit to
this project. First, this structure had to be constructed quickly. Second,
there were concerns about the destruction of elm trees in

(05:09):
the park, so the hope was that the design would
accommodate those elm trees in some way. Third, the building
had to be temporary. It would have to be removed
from Hyde Park by a date of June one, eight
fifty two. And of course it also had to be
big enough to accommodate all of the exhibitors that the
committee wanted to attract, as well as all the foot

(05:29):
traffic that they wanted to come and see the visitors.
So that's kind of a tall order. It needed to
be a giant temporary convention center basically, which even with
modern tech, would be kind of tricky. I know, it happens, right,
but then when you think back to the early eighty fifties,
it's really quite something to think about, right. Joseph Paxton

(05:51):
submitted his idea for a glass and iron structure on June.
The commission wanted him to address the concern over destroying
the elm trees in the park, and they requested that
he revised his design to include this vaulted cross wise
piece in the building, which is called a transept, and
that would enclose the elm trees and prevent the need

(06:13):
for them to be destroyed. He did this and his
design was accepted in part because his construction plan involved
pieces that could be brought together in segments and installed
in a modular production process. All the other submitted designs
and involved this like large scale masonry, so they really,
we're not practical for the very short time frame they

(06:36):
had to build a thing, or the idea that they
wanted to take it down later. Yeah, it's almost like
they got this idea of they wanted to showcase their
country's cultural history. So a lot of them kind of
went in the castle zone and it's like, no, no,
you're missing kind of part of the brief. We need
to we need this to be quick up and down right. Well,
and I think if I had been in the meeting

(06:57):
where they came up with this whole idea in the
first place, of like, let's be a really big building,
but only for a very short amount of time and
then we will take it down. I would have just
been like, are you serious? Is this the best use
of your time and resources? Well, but uh, you know,
Paxison figured it out and because the most available glass
dimension at the time was apparently ten inches by forty inches, uh,

(07:20):
and the structure was going to need a lot of glass,
that standard size was actually used as the basis for
a lot of the entire design. There's actually a really
really cool site that will link to in the show
notes that breaks down how that geometry works. And they've
actually built out CG models of the various elements of
the structure so you can kind of look at them
in three D and see how it all came together

(07:41):
and how those glass pieces were used in those dimensions
to create what became the Crystal Palace. And as a
side note, I feel like I should say the name
the Crystal Palace was not officially given by Paxton. It
kind of came up in the press as this was
being discussed during the submission and acceptance process us and
the pre build lead up to it that journalists started

(08:05):
calling it a palace of crystal, and it kind of
took the name accidentally, but then it got adopted officially.
I wonder if that annoyed people who were really into
glass possibly. Maybe One really interesting challenge that comes with
building a huge building made entirely of glass is the
fact that glass just can't handle a huge waterload in

(08:27):
that configuration, so rain can be really dangerous. So they
put in special gutters, which of course we're named Paxton gutters,
and those are designed to quickly carry water away through
this big gutter system and really just keep fluid from
accumulating on the roof and crushing the thing. Yeah, it
was very, very efficient. It was almost like a tributary

(08:49):
approach in reverse, where they would start very small and
just lead into the progressively bigger gutter system. Well, and
if you think about like our office is pretty much
a giant building wall in glass, those are there's the
vertical surfaces, like the horizontal surfaces in our building are
are not glass because it's too it's really really hard

(09:10):
to maintain specialty. It's safe, and we'll get to the
scale in a little bit when we're talking about construction,
which we'll make you realize how mammoth the structure really was.
I was, I was unaware. Uh. During construction, there was concern,
as you hinted at earlier, that Paxton's lack of real
architectural experience was really going to be a problem. Who

(09:33):
were like, well, yes, it's beautiful, but it's going I
don't know how to make buildings. He makes greenhouses, uh,
and his area of expertise was hot houses, So they
were not the kind of things that would be seeing
the kind of foot traffic that the Expo was expected
to have, And there was some very real fear. Yeah,
meeting Tracy again would be saying sure. So, due to

(10:07):
all these concerns that the expo was going to be
housed in a structure that was designed by a gardener,
even though his experience had really moved way past just
gardening at that point, it was decided that all iron
girders had to be tested before they could be installed,
and they also added cross bracings that were made of wood,
primarily as sort of a visual reassurance for visitors. Yeah,

(10:32):
it just looked sturdier, Yeah, which is kind of fun,
and the building was actually put together in less than
eight months by two thousand men that are sometimes referred
to in some UM historical documents on it as unskilled labors.
Like basically these skilled workers had put together the modular pieces,
but then they were shipped to the site and it

(10:53):
was almost like, I don't want to demean it by saying,
like click together, but you really didn't have to have
like a degree in engineering to see how they went
together and to assemble those barn raising. It was pretty
smartly designed in that regard barn raising or glass. Yes,
and the finished dimensions of this structure are It was

(11:14):
one thousand, eight hundred and forty eight feet long, which
is about five hundred sixty three It was four hundred
and eight feet wide or a hundred twenty four in
a hundred and eight feet high, which is about thirty
three meters, and including the galleries and the ground floor,
more than eight miles or thirteen kilometers of display tables

(11:35):
were housed. Eight miles of display tables. This is where
my mind really boggled. Well, it's one of those things
where UM trying to kind of filter it through like
my modern experience, I'm like this is kind of like
a dragon Con or comic con was in an entirely
glass building. Let's never do that, no, for other reasons,

(11:58):
but when you think about it at that scale of
like a huge convention center that's made entirely of glass,
you can't help but be a little one impressed at
just the sheer brazenness of it, and two pretty wowed
by the engineering, again by someone who people were kind
of poop pooing as a mere gardener. So yeah, well,

(12:22):
and to be fair, while the structure was definitely unique
and eye catching, there was one major flaw in its design,
and you could attribute that flaw directly to Paxton's previous
experience being a hot house designer rather than an architect.
Because the palace was designed like a giant hot house,
it basically worked like a giant hot house, so when

(12:45):
you went inside, it was basically an oven. They put
in this rather elegantly designed louver system that allowed for
some ventilation and moved cool air from the base of
the building up into the main halls. But as you
make s if you have ever been into a greenhouse
in your life, is not really enough. No, And I

(13:05):
mean they had taken other precautions they had. The lover
system had been built in to the design from almost
the beginning, and they had even placed the boiler house,
which produced steam that powered all the exhibits UH in
another building separate from the exhibit hall. Again that he
had thought about the heat, it just wasn't enough to
mitigate the problem because the sun shining through the glass

(13:28):
still turned the whole place into an oven well. And
then when you fill it up with people exactly, I
mean even a fully modernized air conditioned building when filled
up with people as really, temperature goes up very quickly.
And so to remedy these temperature issues, they put these
large canvas tarps that were draped in between the roof
ridges up to offer some shade, and the fabric draping

(13:51):
is actually ended up being a benefit in a couple
of other ways. They cut down on glare, and they
created a more even softer lighting for the interior of
the building ing UH. And they had to of course,
as we mentioned, glass not great at load bearing. UM.
There were so there were small openings designed into the
seams of the drapings that let water pass through and
go directly to the Paxton gutters. UH so the tarps

(14:14):
wouldn't get too heavy for the glass, they wouldn't compromise
the structure, and again it was a pretty elegant solution
to the whole problem. One other ingenious aspect of the
structures design was small gaps in between the wood planks
and the floor, so every evening after the crowd left,
they could just sweep the accumulated dirt from the day

(14:35):
into the gaps for quick going up. Yeah, because remember
it was a temporary building, so while it had um
uh like a column sort of base to it, um
like a foundation, it didn't have like a full slab foundation,
so they really could just kind of return the dirt
back to the earth and they it was very very smart,

(14:55):
uh and it went up on on schedule and opened
on time. The exhibition open to the public on May one,
eighteen fifty one. Nearly fourteen thousand exhibitors were at the show,
and they featured such items as steam engines, prosthetic legs,
chewing tobacco, false teeth guns, hydraulic presses, and rubber goods

(15:18):
made by Goodyear. Exhibitors from France, the United States, Turkey, Russia,
and Egypt attended, and even the coy Noord diamond was
on display. The expo ran until October eleventh of eighteen
fifty one, and there was a big closing ceremony on
October and everyone agreed that the show had been a
huge success and it actually did turn a nice profit,

(15:38):
and more than six million visitors had attended during the
time that the expo was open. As a consequence of
all of this success, Joseph Paxton was knighted in that
same year for his work on the project. Because the
Crystal Palace had been such a success, it inspired other
exhibitions to house their shows and glass conservatories. This included
the Cork Exhibition of eighteen fifty two, the New York

(16:02):
City Exposition of eighteen fifty three, and the Paris Exhibition
of eighteen fifty five, as well as others. So having
a big glass exhibit hall was a thing now, yeah,
because it was so cool and unique and really beautiful.
It was cool and unique until everyone was doing it,
until it became hot and popular. But once the expo

(16:23):
was over, Paxton really yearned to preserve the exhibit hall,
as did the public. I think there was a sense
of they really have to take it down now. And
while it did have to be moved from its spot
in Hyde Park. The good news was that because of
its prefab design, they could be reassembled elsewhere. There were
a whole lot of battles along the way, but Paxton

(16:46):
managed to set up the Crystal Palace Company under a
Royal charter and with the help of a bunch of
other wealthy gentlemen who were willing to fund the moving
project and serve as its directors. In August eighteen fifty two,
the reconstruction started on the Crystal Palace in its new home.
This was Sydenham Hill, which was in southeast London, and

(17:07):
the rebuilt Palace opened in June of eighteen fifty four.
There were some structural changes to it. It didn't go
together exactly the way it had been for the expo,
but it was pretty close. Uh. They kind of switched
some things around, I think to match the new footprints.
It wasn't that they got to the end said where
does this have a piece leftover? Uh? And in its

(17:28):
new incarnation, the Crystal Palace became what many people call
the world's first theme park. It had more than two
million visitors each year and they enjoyed educational exhibits. There
were like museum style setups. There was a roller coaster there,
there was live entertainment, there were cricket matches. Uh. And
they even put in a prehistoric dinosaur swamp, which I

(17:50):
kind of love. Uh. And it's worth keeping in mind
that the existence of dinosaurs, while there had been some
fossil record for a long time before that, they really
had only kind of put together the concept of what
dinosaurs were a few decades before this, so they were
kind of working from very early ideas of dinosaurs. The
Crystal Palace Park was even popular with royalty, which is

(18:12):
not so surprising. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited on
a regular basis, and kings, queens, shaws, sultan's and all
kinds of other rulers from all over the world visited
as well, and as a random and very holly specific
interest aside. In eighteen seventy one, the Crystal Palace was
actually home to the world's first cat show, uh, and

(18:34):
it actually hosted many other subsequent shows of cats and
other animals. So it's just a very popular place, uh,
you know, huge kind of cultural center in theme park. Right.
That actually was after the Crystal Palace started its long
and unfortunate run of terrible luck. Yeah. It had been
such a great success as an exhibition hall, and everyone

(18:56):
really lauded its beauty and its beautiful design. But one
it moved, it seemed like it's luck kind of ran out.
It started to have one piece of bad fortune after another.
And whether you want to attribute that to actual change
in luck or just this will happen. When a thing
is around a long time, it will accumulate bad events.
It really had some really rough ones. Yeah. It starts

(19:18):
in eighteen sixty one when high winds damaged to the structure,
and then a few years after that. Five years after that,
on December eighteen sixty six, a fire destroyed the north
end of the building and a number of the natural
history displays, including the Alhambra, Assyrian, Byzantine Court, Indian and
naval galleries, as well as the tropical department. And they

(19:41):
had sort of a small zoo happening at the time,
and several of the animals housed in that park zoo
were also killed, but due to funding issues, only a
portion of the destroyed building could be rebuilt. In a

(20:02):
hot air balloon accident at the park caused one fatality,
and in eight nine an escaped elephant trampled a park visitor.
That's both tragic and crazy to me that there was
an escaped elephant in a giant glass structure. Well, I
think it wasn't in the glass structure, it was in
the bigger park. The park was really quite large. The

(20:23):
structure was the centerpiece, but there were lots of other
things going out, like the dinosaur swamp was outside the building,
but the whole thing was considered the Crystal Palace as
a park I see. And then in nineteen eleven the
park actually declared bankruptcy. Even though it had been wildly
popular and continued to be and had many visitors, the

(20:43):
cost of upkeep, especially when they were having to do
things like repair glass that was injured or that was
damaged in winds, you know, rebuild sections that have been
lost in fire. They just could not keep up with
the expenses of rebuilding and maintaining. And prior to the
bankruptcy and sort of a last ditch effort to drum

(21:05):
up some cash, the Palace had hosted what they called
the Festival of Empire, which coincided with George the Fifth
Coronation and the pageants and the displays did give the
finances of the park a slight lift, but it really
was not enough to undo decades worth of fiscal strain.
So on September eleventh of nineteen eleven, an announcement appeared

(21:25):
in The Times stating that the Crystal Palace would be
sold at auction on November twenty eight of that year,
And in the weeks after the announcement a flurry of
uproar and crazy fiscal juggling started happening because people really
did love it and they wanted to save it somehow.
On the ninth of November, the Times ran the headline
Crystal Palace Saved. So Lord Plymouth, who was Lord Lieutenant

(21:48):
of Glamorgan and Mayor of Cardiff, had arranged to purchase
the palace for two hundred and ten thousand pounds to
try to keep the beloved park off of the auction block.
The Lord Mayor of London then set up a fund
to purchase the property from Lord Plymouth, and in thirteen
the Crystal Palace became a National property. Yeah, Lord Plymouth

(22:10):
sort of stepped in. He didn't actually want to become
the owner of the park, but he wanted to save it,
and it was one of those like, look, I will
do the quick thing we have to do to save
the situation and buy us some time. And that gave
the Lord Mayor of London time to be like, let's
now start to build up some money so we can
take this financial strain off of you and give it

(22:32):
to the people of the country. Uh. In nineteen fourteen,
a charitable trust was established under the Ministry of Education
to keep the park and the historical building going, and
the trustees hired Henry James Buckland as manager of the
Crystal Palace. Buckland was so completely devoted to the park

(22:54):
and the palace and his job that he even named
one of his daughter's crystal in its honor. That's kind
of lovely, it is. During World War One, the Crystal
Palace was close to the public so it could be
used as a training area for the Royal Naval Division.
The property was designated as the Royal Naval Shore Station
HMS Victory six, but soon became known as HMS Crystal Palace.

(23:19):
And once that had wrapped up and it got it
reopened to the public for the next couple of decades,
Buckland really worked tirelessly to restore the neglected park and
work on continual improvements, because you know, it had been
falling into some disrepair prior to the auction, and so
he was kind of making up for some lost time
of care. But under his management it even started to

(23:41):
turn a small profit again. So just when things seemed
to be going better, they actually had seemed to be
going better for a little while at this On the
night of November six, the Crystal Palace was almost entirely
destroyed by a fire. According to a BBC article written
on the history of the Crystal Palace, there were fire engines,

(24:04):
fo fire officers and seven forty nine police officers called
to the scene to try to fight the fire, but
it wasn't enough. Only the towers survived, and the cause
of the blaze was never identified. Yeah, there was a
lot of speculation. Some people claimed it had to have
been arson, but there are other instances where people were like, hey,

(24:26):
it's a giant building full of delicate displays that have
lots of glue and paper in them. This could have
just naturally happened, and it was so easy to spread,
as sometimes unfortunately happens in museums. Displays are often not
always made to be really fire retardant um, and by
n seven most of the ironwork of the once regal

(24:49):
and now demolished Crystal Palace had actually been removed by
scrap merchants because at that point to rebuild the whole
building they just did not have the finances for it.
During World War Two, the park, which still existed even
though the Crystal Palace had been destroyed, was close to
the public again and used as a post for governmental
war work. For a while, the North Tower was used

(25:11):
to test dummy bombs. Yeah, they would drop them off
the tower and test them. It's kind of fine. It's
like dropping eggs to kind of The South tower was
dismantled over the course of the winter of nineteen ninety one,
and then on April sixteenth one, the North Tower was
destroyed with explosives. According to some accounts, the towers were

(25:32):
continued considered too conspicuous and war strategists feared that they
would be too easy for German bombers to spot. So
here's a quote from Buckland about the state of the
park following all of this. The general devastation which we
have suffered would lead one to suppose that our acres
had been chosen as the field for the most realistic

(25:53):
battle of the war. All our equipment, stands, seating, and
furniture have either been destroyed or removed by the military.
Not an inch of mahogany has been left in the
contents of the buildings, not a single shelf has been
left in any cupboard. Yeah, Buckland was really not very
delighted with how the military returned his beloved park. I
mean again, remember that this man loved his work and

(26:14):
his job, so I think he kind of felt like
it had been misused and abused a little bit. And
it should be noted that Buckland actually stayed on as
manager there until he resigned in nineteen nine. In nineteen
forty five, competition was announced for architects and town planners
to submit layouts for a new Crystal Palace and surroundings,

(26:36):
and while a winner was announced in May of nineteen
forty six, in June of that same year a letter
to the Joint Committee on the part of the assessors
indicated that while a prize had been awarded, the winning
entry was not practical and they should have another competition. Uh,
we didn't really find any evidence that that second competition
never really took place. No, it seems like there was.

(27:00):
I'm not sure how much of it can be chalked
up to like poor planning versus they just didn't get
the level of expertise in the entries that they had
hoped for. But it was sort of like, uh, we
just had to pick the one that we thought was
generally prettiest, but we can't make any of these, which
is a pity. And then it it never really happened. Um. However,

(27:25):
the Crystal Palace Park still remains. Uh. Now it's home
to a concert bowl, there's a sports center there, there's
pretty much all of the other accouterments you would expect
in a park like play areas. Uh. And the dinosaur
court remains though, and it was actually refurbished a while back,
which I kind of love. Uh. And even though the
dinosaurs are not really we recognize now as accurate, you know,

(27:48):
like I said, they were originally put together and design
when we didn't know as much about dinosaurs as we
do now. So some of them would be a little
silly if you look at them with um a picky
I do they have caveman next to them? I've seen
pictures and I didn't see any caveman, but there are
like some downed animals and stuff, like some snacks. I

(28:08):
would have a problem with caveman. No. Uh. And in
the year since Sir Henry Buckland resigned, there's been a
steady ebb and flow of projects in the park, as
there would be in any public space where you know,
people will make a bid to build a thing, and
sometimes it even gets announced in the papers, but then
it never happens, or small structures are built. One building

(28:30):
was turned into a museum for the Crystal Palace. Uh,
But you know continues. However, there is a sort of
new development. Yeah. In July, which is basically just before
we're recording this. Yeah, just a few weeks ago it
was announced that the Chinese developer was working on plans
to rebuild Paxton's Crystal Palace, although the Mayor's office and

(28:54):
Bromley Council representatives were pretty clear that the project was
still in the very very early and theoretical state ages. Yeah,
there have been other discussions that it was going to
get rebuilt before that didn't pan out, So we'll see
what happens. It would be really neat if that could happen,
but we don't know. We'll see, We'll wait and see.
As for Sir Joseph Paxton, the architect of the original

(29:14):
Crystal Palace, he continued to design gardens and build structures
and hot houses and he actually became a member of
Parliament in eighteen fifty four and he held that post
until his death in eighteen sixty five. So he really did,
as we mentioned at the top of the podcast, kind
of He's a great story of like rags to riches
upward mobility is a bit extreme. I don't think it

(29:35):
was quite that with his farm family, but he really
did kind of just through his own smarts and ingenuity,
rise to prominence with beautiful, gigantic glass building. Absolutely gorgeous. Uh.
We'll have lots of links in show notes, and many
of them will have pictures of the Crystal Palace. It's
so amazing, what a huge structure it was. Just the

(29:57):
sheer size of it is really pretty um overwhelming. I
had imagined it as much smaller until looking at all
of these pictures and the people, it's so teeny. Yeah,
when you actually see some of the sketches and stuff
of the elm trees that were encased in it, and
the people walking around in there, and people up on

(30:18):
the balconies on the upper levels. It's almost startling. That
can't be. That is to scale, al right, It makes
total sense that they would put in wooden supports that
were much more to make it look sturdier, because I
probably would have been scared to go in there. Yeah,
but to the best of my knowledge, no incidents related

(30:39):
to the safety of the structure ever happened during the expo,
and that was some heavy foot traffic. Go Paxton, you
knew what you were doing, even though everyone doubted you.
Pay so much for joining us on this Saturday. Since
this episode is out of the archive, if you heard

(30:59):
an email address or Facebook U r L or something
similar over the course of the show, that could be
obsolete now. Our current email address is History Podcast at
I heart radio dot com. Our old how stuff Works
email address no longer works, and you can find us
all over social media at missed in History and you
can subscribe to our show on Apple podcasts, Google podcasts,

(31:23):
the I Heart Radio app, and wherever else you listen
to podcasts. Stuff you Missed in History Class is a
production of I Heart Radio. For more podcasts from I
heart Radio, visit the iHeart Radio app, Apple podcasts, or
wherever you listen to your favorite shows.