The Discovery of Helium

Helium and humankind's understanding of it sits at the earliest intersection of astronomy and chemistry. The story of its discovery also features two scientists who were working on similar ideas concurrently, with a surprising outcome.

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Episode Transcript

Speaker 1 (00:00):
Hey, everybody, we have some very exciting news. Our trip
to Paris was a great success. We had an amazing time.
So we are planning another trip, this time to Rome
and Florence. It is from May fourteen. Folks from the
US will depart on thet I guess if you're coming
from somewhere else in the America's you would also depart

(00:20):
on the thirteenth. We will spend four nights in Rome
and three nights in Tuscany. Some highlights of what are
in the plans the Colosseum, the Sistine Chapel, Michelangelo's David,
and the chinqui Chetta, among others. Plus you're gonna have
some free time to explore both Roman Tuscany on your own.
So to get more information about this trip, go to
defined Destinations dot com. That's D E F I N

(00:43):
E D destinations all one word dot com. Scroll down
to our trip right there on the homepage and it'll
have all the information about the itinerary, the pricing, how
to reserve a spot, all of that. Welcome to stuff
you missed in history last the production of I Heart
Radios How Stuff Works. Hello, and welcome to the podcast.

(01:10):
I'm Holly Fry and I'm Tracy pe Wilson. Helium is
the second most abundant element in the universe, but you
may have seen new stories in recent years about its scarcity.
I know I was recently at like a party store
and they had the sign on the door of that
said sorry, no helium. Yeah. When when my brother got married,
which at this point was some years ago, I was

(01:31):
tasked with getting the helium container and some balloons for
some decorating that we were d I ying. Uh. And
then I still had the leftover helium and the container
and one of the shortages happened, and I was like,
what am I supposed to do with this? And I
canted to bring this to the helium bank and I
donate it somewhere. What's happening? Yeah? Uh? And helium, just

(01:52):
for very quick overview, isn't a neert gas. It is
not prone to combining with other elements. It has no
color and no odor, and it is very important here
on Earth. We'll get into y later. But it is
also not bound by planetary gravity, so it doesn't tend
to stick around on Earth on its own. And the
story of helium and our understanding of it has some

(02:12):
interesting aspects to him. Aside from the fact that it
sits at the earliest intersection of astronomy and chemistry, it
also features two scientists who were working on similar ideas
concurrently with a sort of surprising outcome in that in
that particular piece of the story. Uh so we are
going to talk about those two men and how humans
started to figure out what helium even was, and then

(02:36):
we're gonna follow helium's story right up to the present
day and some of those issues with its availability and
what the problem is. Pierre Jules Caesar Jensen was born
on February eighteen twenty four, at home at fourteen Rue
Leveck in Paris. His father, Antoine Caesar Jensen, was a
musician who played the clarinet, and his mother was Pauline

(02:58):
Marie Lemoyne. Both sides of the family were really stable
and comfortable. You'll often see his name listed as Pierre Jensen,
although he signed his name often as as jewels are
simply Jay and said that's what we're gonna go with that.
Jules was the only son of Antoine and Marie, and
he was very much beloved. Then when he was eight,

(03:19):
he had an accident. Some sources attribute this accident to
the carelessness of the nurse who was watching over him.
It left him pretty universally described in the language of
the time as lame, although the specifics of this injury
and his level of mobility that's not really detailed anywhere. No,
you will always see the phrase that he had an
accident as a child which left him lame, but it

(03:42):
doesn't say if he had difficulty walking. There are some
pictures where it looks like one of his arms maybe
is not fully functional, but I can't it's hard to
tell if that's just like early photography awkward sitting versus
an actual problem with his his physical capability. But so
we don't know, and it's a little bit of a
weird thing that always comes up, but we don't have

(04:04):
a whole lot of specifics around It's it's clear they
had a disability, it's not clear exactly what correct. But
due to that accident and its result, though, Jules was
not sent to boarding school, which would have been the
normal course for a child of his economic situation at
the time. He was educated at home instead, and he
actually got a very well rounded curriculum that included both

(04:25):
arts and sciences when he was a teenager, though everything changed.
Right around the time he would have been fifteen or sixteen.
His parents fell from their comfortable financial situation into poverty.
It's not clear exactly what happened. Speculation tends to focus
on some kind of bad investment that wiped out their fortune.
But whatever happened to the family money, they moved to

(04:47):
a more modest home. Jules was put in a position
where he was no longer the pampered child of this
well off couple. He had to go out and earn
some money, and so in October of eighteen forty jun
Sen again working in a bank. That was a job
that he actually held for the next seven years. Either
the family's sudden lass or his consequent career in banking,

(05:08):
or the combination of those two things seemed to make
a very strong impression on him, because he was frugal
for his entire life, and he kept very meticulous accounts
of his finances at all times. From eighteen forty on,
Jansen worked for two other employers after leaving that first bank,
first for a Monsieur Boult, and he worked with him

(05:29):
from eighteen forty seven to eighteen forty eight and then
for a Monsieur Lapelle, and he worked there for several years,
starting in eighteen forty eight. Throughout this work as a
financial clerk, Jules continued his studies, but he had to
wedge this into some pretty minimal free time. He took
classes at the Paris Conservatory on Sundays and then throughout
the week he learned higher math on his own. He

(05:50):
read books by mathematicians like Etienne Bazoo and Sylvester Francois Lak.
He also learned Greek and Latin by studying on his own,
and in ja Nuary of eighteen forty nine, he earned
his Baccalaureate of Letters. His Baccalaureate of mathematical Sciences followed
in November of eighteen fifty. In eighteen fifty one, having
worked so incredibly hard to educate himself for a full decade,

(06:14):
Jensen was enrolled at the store Bun and he was
twenty seven at this point and entered his graduate phase
of study. And at this point, when someone reaches that
level of education and that point in their life, it
would have been customary for him to travel throughout Europe
for extended periods of time, both for education and life experience.
But Jules could not afford the trips that his contemporaries

(06:35):
were making. He had to continue to work various jobs
as a substitute teacher and as a private tutor, and
then make small trips as time and finances allowed. In
the mid eighteen fifties, he traveled with two of the
young men he was tutoring. These were Ernst and Alfred Gandidier,
and they went to South America. Johnson's goal was that

(06:55):
he could take advantage of the travel opportunity to delve
into what he had decided would be his primary career focus,
which was research. He wanted to resolve quote certain questions
about the physics of the globe on this trip by
making magnetic observations at various points on their travels. This
was the first step in a research career that would
take him all over the planet. And before we continue

(07:17):
with Jensen's story, we have to talk about another man
because their lives and their science intersect, and that man
is Norman Lockyer. Lockyer was born Joseph Norman Lockyer on
May seventeenth of eighteen thirty six in Warwickshire, England. His father,
Joseph Hooley Lockyer was a science educator and that probably

(07:37):
sparked Norman's interest in this subject. Lockyer was educated in
private schools and once he got out into the world
after graduation, he started working in the civil service at
the War Office. Yeah, we don't have as many details
about Lockyer's early life. It seems like he had a
pretty normal uh use, But throughout his years of work

(07:58):
in the civil service, he became really really interested in astronomy,
and he acquired a telescope in eighteen sixty one that
was made by the famed lens expert Thomas Cook, and
a few years later he also had a spectroscope. Throughout
the eighteen sixties, Lockyer spent a great deal of his
free time studying the Sun with his spectroscope, first looking
for sun spots and then considering what exactly the Sun

(08:20):
was composed of. That was a topic that was very
much at the forefront of science theory at the time,
and that leads us back to Jules Jensen. Before we
get into the next part of Helium's history, though, we're
going to take a quick sponsor break. On August eighteen

(08:43):
sixty eight, Jules Jansen made history as the first human
to observe helium, But of course at the time he
did not know it was helium. He just knew that
he had observed something that had not been seen before.
He was in Guntur, India to observe a total eclipse.
And before we talk about how he was able to
make that observation of the Sun's corona, we have to

(09:03):
talk about spectroscopy. The prismatic observations that were made possible
by the spectroscope allowed scientists to analyze light, including measuring
the wavelengths in light. When light from an element passes
through a spectroscope, the various spectra are dispersed. They can
be observed and documented to develop a set of data
that can then be applied to other observations. Scientists started

(09:26):
using this information when observing the heavens to compare the
light that was admitted from other bodies to that that
was associated with elements on Earth, to try to discern
what elements, things, and elsewhere in the universe might be
composed of. This was one of my favorite parts of
astronomy class. Yeah, I had the good fortune of a

(09:47):
few years back to go visit the NASA's Goddard Space
Flight Center and speak with Stephanie Milum, who is one
of their um space chemistry experts. She has a much
better and more official title than that, but like listening
to her talk about out all of this was completely
enthralling to me. And I love this idea when we
look at something and people go, oh, yes, that planet
is made of glass, and I'm like, how do you know?

(10:09):
But here is how So the science that develops spectrometry
goes back to Isaac Newton actually who observed sunlight through
a prism and saw that different colors of the spectrum
reflected differently. He was actually trying to solve a problem
of these halo like rims of different colored light that
appeared around objects in the focus of telescopes. Red light,
for example, has a longer wavelength than blue, and the

(10:31):
other colors on the spectrum all have their own wavelengths,
and any given instance of light is made up of
combinations of these various colors on the spectrum. Bavarian scientists
and lens expert Joseph Fraunhofferd did a lot of work
and examining light, specifically sunlight and the spectrum of colors
that the sunlight contained. As he started cataloging the light

(10:53):
in its various wave lengths. He noticed dark lines that
appeared in some parts of the spectrum when he looked
at light from the Sun and other stars. These dark
lines held the key to unlocking the chemistry of space,
but Frownhoffer didn't know that yet, and he didn't live
long enough to realize what he was onto. Yeah, he
knew he was onto something, and he did a lot
of really groundbreaking work, but he didn't quite get to

(11:15):
that whole thing of like, oh, these are elements. The
two men credited with moving spectrometry forward are Robert Bunsen, yes,
the same one that the burner is named for, and
Gustav Kirchoff. And when Bunsen's gas fueled burner was used
to heat elements, the spectroscope then revealed lines. When that
was those elements reviewed that were similar to Frownhoffers and

(11:36):
they corresponded to Frownhoffer's on the visible light spectrum. So
they had identified the concept of signatures of elements, and
they quickly started to experiment with a number of different
elements to identify their signatures. Soon they realized that this
work was opening up the analysis of objects and space
in a whole new way. Kirkoff is credited with identifying

(11:58):
sixteen different element within the Sun, and that was just
the beginning. As this new technology evolved, Jules Jensen was
fascinated by it and he was very eager to use it.
And he, like other scientists of the day, spent a
lot of time focusing on the Sun, and he was
especially eager to examine the prominences. Those are those sort
of flames that appear at the Sun's surface, like part

(12:21):
of the corona. You'll notice this, those little um sort
of larger stabs out into the corona. So when the
eighteen sixty eight eclipse came around, Jansen was certain to
be at what he believed would be an ideal vantage
point in a location that had started as a French
colony in India's Andra Pradesh state in the seventeen hundreds.

(12:42):
He wrote to his wife Ariette of how pleased he
was with his set up there, saying, quote, we have
the whole of an immense room for our instruments. These
families are proud and happy to receive us. He also
realized he could rig this set up with a prism
and a slit so that he could observe the Sun
in broad daylight with out the need for an eclipse.
From his vantage point in India, Jensen was able to

(13:05):
identify a bright yellow line through his spectrometer. It did
not match up with any of the data collected on
any known elements that other scientists had identified. It was
kind of close to sodium, but not an exact match,
so it appeared to be the discovery of a new element.
On October eighteen sixty eight, jen Sen's letters about his
observations to the Academy of Science arrived in Paris and

(13:28):
they were read before the members two days later. Meanwhile,
lock Eer was doing his own work regarding solar prominences
in the fall of eighteen sixty eight. He did not
travel for his observations, though he stayed right at home
at twenty four Fairfax Road in Hampstead, but he did
acquire his own spectroscope for the purposes of this research.
And while he looked at the Sun on October twenty

(13:49):
of that year, he too figured out a way to
look for such observations without waiting around four and eclipse,
and he too identified the lines that he thought represented
a newly observed element. Lock Here wrote to the Royal
Academy in London and the Academy of Science and Paris,
and his work was read the same day as John Sends,
lock Ears and Jensen's work, which developed coincidentally along the

(14:13):
same timeline. But Miles and Miles apart and with no
knowledge of one another, each offered confirmation of the others,
and at the time, while they both saw that mystery
line that suggested an unknown element in the mix, what
was really getting attention was their ingenuity in figuring out
how to observe the sun at any time, not needing
an eclipse. We've covered concurrent work and scientific breakthroughs on

(14:36):
the show before, where this kind of scenario sets off
a chain of events that turns ugly, basically, with multiple
people trying to take credit for the same thing and
getting at each other's throats about it. So you might
expect that John Senn and lock Here would become bitter
rivals at this point, with each one angrily claiming that
the other had stolen their thunder. We are happy to

(14:57):
report the exact opposite happened in this case. Yeah, as
the Academy of Sciences tried to figure out who should
get credit and how to like handle this fairly. One
of its members, French astronomer f A, offered up the
possibility that they could give credit to both men equally,
suggesting quote, instead of trying to proportion the merit of

(15:17):
the discovery and consequently diminishing it, would it be better
to attribute impartially the whole honor to both of these
men of science, who separated by some thousands of miles,
have each been fortunate enough to reach the intangible and
invisible by a method which is probably the most astonishing
that the genius of observation has ever conceived. Sharing what

(15:39):
a concept and both Jules Jenson and Norman Lockyer thought
this was just fine. But though there was no animosity
or struggle between the two of them, the same really
couldn't be said for the scientific community regarding their mystery element.
For one, nobody knew exactly what this new element was.
The two men had each independently observed. That left the

(16:02):
discovery open to some skepticism and criticism. It was a
really tough ask to get people on board with the
idea that an element was found in space that didn't
also exist on Earth, even though two men had seen
the same thing independently. Some of them were dismissing the
idea of a new element on the Sun as imaginary. Yeah,
of course, Uh, we just didn't know about helium on

(16:24):
Earth yet. Uh. And to try to identify this mystery element,
because they had again agreed that they would share credit
for having discovered a way to look at the Sun
without an eclipse, they were still both trying to figure
out and lock Your in particular was really trying to
figure out what this thing was they had seen. So
to try to identify it, he started working with a
chemist named Edward Franklin, who was the chairman of the

(16:46):
Royal College of Chemistry, and the hope was that the
wavelength that had been observed by Lockyer and Jean Sen
could be replicated in a lab environment, and this marker
could be replicated. The theory was at that yellow line
that Lockyer had seen was perhaps hydrogen that was exhibiting
unique characteristics due to temperature and pressure, but no dice,
no amount of fuxing around with hydrogen gave the same results.

(17:10):
Lockeer had already given this element a new name after Helios,
the Greek god of the Sun, but Franklin, who wasn't
convinced that Lockyer actually had a new element. Backed away
from that situation. He did not want any credit for
his work on the project because he didn't want his
name associated with a false scientific claim, even one that
was being made in earnest. Yeah, the lot of elements

(17:33):
were coming up as possibilities at this point, and many
of them were not, uh, we're not actually new elements.
They were just mislabeled or or some sort of lab problem. Uh.
Of course we know all about helium today, and we're
going to talk about how it came to be identified
with certainty after we first paused for a word from
a sponsor. It took almost three decades from the time

(18:01):
that the Jensen and lock Youer were making their observations
for helium to be isolated and identified on Earth. William
Francis Hillebrand noticed in eighty nine while observing a uranium
oxide known as urane a night that a unique gas
was present, and he isolated that gas and determined that
it contained nitrogen and something else that could not be identified.

(18:24):
And this same result was replicated several times with samples
from multiple locations. In Scottish chemists, Sir William Ramsey thought
that the mystery element in Hillebrand's experiments might be our gone,
but when he worked with the samples, he realized that
what was present was that same signature that Lockyer had
previously noted and claimed was a new element. Scientist William

(18:47):
Crooks confirmed the match to lock Your's helium as well,
and at last the work of of Lockyer and Jensen
was recognized as a legitimate discovery and not a misidentification
of a known element. This put the credit for the
discovery of terrestrial helium up for debate. This didn't go
quite the same way as the previous who gets credit discussion.

(19:09):
Hillebrand wrote to Ramsey and he told them that he
had thought that there could have been a new element
in the mix, but he had quote not the slightest
thought of claiming or hinting at a prior discovery. He
wrote in his letter that he really just wanted Ramsey
to know that he was not a careless fool. He
knew there was something there, but that there had simply
been enough scientific development in the years between his work

(19:31):
and Ramsey's work that it allowed helium to finally be identified.
Swedish scientist Pertato or clev made a claim to the
title of co discoverer, saying that he and colleague Nils
Langlet had been doing similar work to Ramsey's. Their scenario
played out very differently from that of Jensen and lock
Here they did not want to share credit at all.

(19:53):
Today they are both recognized for their work and identifying
helium on Earth. And then in the early nineteen hundreds
in the US, him Toon P. Katie and David F. McFarland,
working in Kansas, developed a method to quickly identify the
percentage of helium in a sample of natural gas, as
well as a way to extract it from other gases.
As for Lockyer and Jensen, they became not only acquaintances

(20:16):
after their independent discoveries and nine at the two of them,
but they also became good friends. They were friends until
Jules Jensen's death at the age of eighty three in
nineteen o seven. They had been friends at that point
for thirty nine years. Yeah, they really became quite close,
which I think is the sweetest part of this story. Um.
As we said, often it becomes a very um you know,

(20:37):
headbutting battle over who gets credit for what, and instead
they were like, what you did this too. You're so
smart and cool. You're so smart and cool. Let's be BFFs.
I'm sure it's exactly how it played out. But in
the years between the eighteen sixty eight discovery and his death,
Jensen went on to invent a high speed camera, which
he called a photographic revolver. He had observed many celestial phenomena,

(20:59):
and he served as the first director of the Moudaun Observatory.
In nineteen o three, he published a book of six
thousand photographs of the Sun. His work and solar photography
far surpassed the work of all others, and it was
considered the gold standard for half a century. In nineteen twenty,
a memorial to Jansen was erected in southern Paris. Lock

(21:20):
Ear's work, beyond the identification of helium and solar prominences,
included the founding of the periodical Nature in eighteen sixty nine.
He served as Nature's editor for fifty years. As the
nineteenth century came to a close, lock Ear studied the
connections between astronomy and the architecture of ancient civilizations, examining
the ways that the monuments of the Greeks and ancient

(21:41):
Egyptians aligned with astronomical events. He placed the date of
Stonehenge's construction at eighteen forty eight b C, which was
partially verified by carbon dating in the mid twentieth century.
Of course, there are multiple dates associated with different sections
of Stonehenge, as construction happened over mult the pull phases
over many years. Yeah, so you'll see, like the date

(22:03):
of Stonehenge if you just look that up on the internet,
as many different dates. But he was correct in the
section that he identified, and Lockyer's career was one of distinction.
He became the Secretary of the Duke of Devonshire's Royal
Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science in
eighteen seventy that's one title, and he went on to
join the Science and Art Department of South Kensington in

(22:26):
eighteen seventy five at the request of Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli.
Lockyer died on August sixteenth, nineteen twenty. The observatory that
he started remains in Devon and now it's a public
science education center called the Norman Lockyer Observatory. And as
we mentioned at the top of this episode, in recent
years Helium has made a lot of headlines because of shortages.

(22:48):
Even though it's abundant in the cosmos, it is not
so abundant on Earth, which is a problem. We know
that helium is vital to party balloons and the hilarity
ensues when someone inhales it and then speaks with the
squeaky voice. But helium is a really vital part of
science industry and medical practice. Helium is used in MRI

(23:08):
machines and missiles as a coolant for super conducting magnets,
particle accelerators, needed, satellite instruments are cooled by it, and
deep sea divers use it in their air mix for
highly pressurized conditions so they don't get the bends. It's
even part of the barcode scanning laser systems and many
grocery stores and retail checkout lanes because helium doesn't burn.

(23:30):
It's also ideal for use in rocket engines, and it
is not something we can manufacture. Helium results when uranium
decays in what are known as gas traps, which takes
thousands and thousands of years, and we are using it
far faster than we find it. Over the last decade,
the price of helium has increased two hundred and fifty
percent due to rising demand and dropping reserves. In the

(23:53):
nineteen twenties in the United States, the Federal Helium Reserve
was established in Mrllo, Texas. Helium is part of the
city's identity now and the U S stock of helium
is very carefully tracked, but the once abundant reserve is
not that robust any longer. In Congress pass legislation requiring
the U S. Bureau of Land Management to sell off

(24:15):
all helium stores by That didn't play out quite that way, though,
and the remaining helium stores are supposed to be sold
off via auctions over the next several years, with a
deadline of September one, to try to get the United
States out of the helium trade. That is because maintaining
helium is really expensive and the cost of continuing to

(24:37):
do it was deemed to be greater than any benefit
that came from it. This is really creating a potential
crisis for science labs in particular. Yeah, when you read
articles about it, it's always when they talk to someone
who needs helium in a lab scenario where they're like,
I don't know, I feel like we're playing with fire
because we're doing all these experiments that require it, and
if it suddenly goes away, like all of our research

(24:58):
just stops, which is terrifying when you're in like a
multi year project. We humans blaze through about six point
two billion cubic feet of helium each year, and there
are actually only fourteen suppliers of helium on the entire planet.
The US has seven of them, and the restaur in Australia, Poland, Russia, Algeria,
and Qatar. And that also means that shifts in the

(25:21):
global economy and any trade relations can deeply impact the
helium industry. And in twenty sixteen, more than one trillion
liters of helium were discovered in Tanzania under a volcanic valley.
That find was significant because it marked the first time
we have found helium when we were actually looking for it.
All of the previous fines were sort of happy accidents

(25:42):
when people were trying to find natural gas. But even
when helium is found by accident, it's not always possible
to collect and store it because that process is expensive.
That Mrlo facility keeps helium stored in a dolomite rock layer,
and that is just not something that can be replicated
very Yeah, it's tricky. We need it really bad, but

(26:02):
no one really has the money to maintain a facility
for it. Uh. I mean, even the one that we
have that has been going on for a long time,
we're trying to shut down. And make no mistake. Helium
is in the air we breathe in very very small amounts.
But it is also uh, really difficult. Even though we
mentioned those two men that figured out how to isolate
it from other gases, it's really costly, making it almost

(26:28):
impossible to isolate its gassy estate from other elements in
the atmosphere around it. And it is so light that
it is always rising, rising away from the Earth and
right into space. Uh. There is work being done on conservation,
including just making people aware of what's happening. Tracy mentioned
that she had this leftover helium and was suddenly like,
should I donate this? I mean, I don't know that

(26:51):
individual donations of tiny tanks would be that much of
a help, but we are trying to figure out how
to make helium something that we're not so wasteful with. Uh.
There is work underway to make it possible, for example,
for science labs to actually recycle the helium that they use.
So helium's history in terms of our knowledge of it
is a pretty brief and intense arc. Over the course

(27:12):
of a hundred and fifty years, we've gone from not
knowing that helium was a thing to finding all kinds
of uses for it to facing a shortage crisis. Helium
shortage is the third to happen in fourteen years. Yeah,
and there have been many others over the course of
that hundred and fifty year history. And what always happens

(27:32):
is something like that fine in Tanzania. I'm not sure
how much that has been able to be um actually
like harnessed and used, like stored and used, which might
be why we're facing this this shortage now. Uh. And
hopefully there will be other ways to figure out how
to manage helium because we do seem to need it.

(27:55):
The space program is going to be in big trouble
if we really run out. It's it's one of those
fast stating things that I didn't really think about a
lot until these shortages started cropping up in the news
several years ago. I don't know that all that it's
really all that common knowledge that we're using helium and
all of these very important things, uh and maybe not

(28:15):
always being smart about how we manage our usage of
it um, but that is helium. I have two pieces
of listener mail. They're both fairly brief. One is a
lovely postcard from our listener Jim, and it is a
postcard from one of my favorite places, Disney World. He writes, Deer,
Holly and Tracy, greetings from Disney World. As promised, I

(28:37):
am uh taking a moment out of my honeymoon to
say hi. Having an amazing time thought of the Haunted
Mansion episode. The entire time, I was in line with
my wife. Keep up the good work. Regards. One, thank
you for taking time to write us postcard while you're
on your honeymoon to congratulations on your marriage. I hope
it is long and happy. And three hooray Disney World.
I'll go back very soon. Thank you, thank you, thank

(29:00):
you for taking time to write us that postcard. My
second listener mail is an email that came from our
listener Diana, and it is about our recent episode on
Frieda Belinfante, and she wrote, Hello, is a cellist, teacher
and conductor. I wanted to say how much I appreciated
your episode on Freda Bellinfonte. I had not heard of
her before. What a remarkable woman. Thank you for your work.

(29:20):
I have attached to photo of my tuxedo cat for you.
Her name is kidd A uh Kida is cute ist pie.
Thank you, thank you, thank you. Also, thank you for
being an educator. I'm always very grateful for the educators
in our audience because they are doing important work. So
if you would like to write to us, you can
do so at History podcast at I heart radio dot com.
That is a new email address, please note it. You

(29:42):
can also find us on social media as missed in
History pretty much everywhere, and Missed in History dot com
is the website address you can come and visit us at.
If you would like to subscribe to the podcast, you
can also do that. It sounds like a very good idea.
You can do that on the I Heart Radio app,
at Apple podcast or wherever it is you listen. M

(30:04):
Stuff You Missed Industry Class is a production of I
Heart Radios How Stuff Works. For more podcasts for my
heart Radio, visit the I Heart Radio app, Apple Podcasts,
or wherever you listen to your favorite shows. H