December 9, 2019 • 34 mins
Temple University scientists have found a new way to improve chocolate and it involves electric fields. Learn about the technology and physics behind improving a nearly perfect food.
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Episode Transcript
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Speaker 1 (00:04):
Welcome to tech Stuff, a production of I Heart Radios
How Stuff Works. Hey there, and welcome to tech Stuff.
I'm your host, Jonathan Strickland. I'm an executive producer with
I Heart Radio and I love all things tech, and guys,
things have gotten a little hectic over at I Heart
Radio headquarters. We're running around all over the place working
(00:27):
on special projects. And the way it impacts us right now, guys,
is that I just haven't had the time to be
able to research and write full new episodes. So we're
gonna be doing a couple of reruns just for the
time being. Don't worry. New episodes are right around the corner.
I just I need to be in the same city
for two days in a row and then I think
(00:50):
I can probably you know, bang a couple out. But
in the meantime, I thought maybe we would enjoy this episode,
which originally aired back in two thousand sixteen. It's called
How Tech Could Make Better Chocolate, and it's all about
a a Temple University project in which scientists were using
electric fields to improve chocolate. And you know, being the
(01:11):
holiday season with lots of chocolate all around, I figured
what better time to revisit this than Now, so enjoy
this classic episode. How Stuff Works Now if you aren't familiar,
is our more news oriented page, So if you go
to now dot how stuff works dot com you can
see it. We have a lot more stories that are
(01:32):
reflective of things that are unfolding now, thus the name,
and we also do video for that. There's also a
podcast hosted by Lauren Vogelbaum. You can subscribe to that
How Stuff Works Now. It's a summary of some of
the stories that we cover each week. So if you're
not familiar with that, go check it out. It's pretty awesome. Anyway,
(01:52):
I did this story about chocolate and making sure you
could reduce the viscosity of liquid chocolate so that it
does and gum up stuff because one of the challenges
of working with chocolate is making sure that it doesn't
clog up the pipes like Augustus Gloop in Willy Wonka.
So a consulting firm working on behalf of Mars Incorporated,
(02:14):
which is a giant candy company that makes a lot
of different chocolate products. This consulting firm went to a
group of physicists at Temple University, and physicist is one
of those words. I have difficulty pronouncing. I think I
might just say scientists. Scientists at Temple University. Hey, that's
way better. And these guys have developed a method to
(02:35):
make crude oil flow more easily through pipes using electric fields.
So the question that the consulting firm had was could
you do the same thing you did for crude oil
for chocolate? And here's a spoiler alert, Yeah they could.
But I want to talk more about what they did
and how they did it because it's it's a really
(02:56):
interesting story. So I'm gonna go into a bit more
detail about the physics and the technology behind the scientist
solution for this problem. It's pretty cool and a lot
of it was stuff I had no idea about before
I began to research the story. So today's episode is
going to be about chocolate. It's gonna be about viscous fluids,
(03:18):
about electro real logical fluids, and how an electric field
can change their fluid I properties, specifically viscosity. So yeah,
this episode is gonna be science heavy. But here's also chocolate,
so stick around. You know, everyone loves chocolate. So let's
get into the physics first. Now, fluid dynamics is pretty
(03:39):
complicated and also there's some stuff that's related to this
that falls into the category of misinformation about viscosity. So
I'll be talking a lot about not just the principles
in general, but some specific uh myths that I would
like to bust, as some of my former workers used
(04:00):
to do on a regular basis. So, first of all,
viscosity is a property of fluids or semi fluids, and
it can be described as a fluids thickness or stickiness
and its resistance to flowing due to internal friction. More accurately,
viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluids
deformation due to tensile or shear stress. Now, shear stress
(04:25):
is mechanical stress that's parallel to the surface of that substance.
So you could think of sheer stress as it's not perpendicular.
It's not like an impact, right, it's more of a
tearing ten style. Stress is a pulling stress rather than
a compression stress. So again, instead of compressing stuff closer together,
(04:47):
it's about pulling stuff further apart. And water has a
pretty low viscosity, Honey has a very high viscosity. So
we actually measure viscosity and units called poises p o
I s e s. Water at room temperature twenty degrease
celsius or so has a viscosity of zero point zero
(05:09):
one poises or a center poise. In other words, a
thick oil might have a viscosity of one point zero poise. Now,
we measure viscosity with a viscometer. I'm not making that up.
That's actually the name of the tool used to measure
a fluids viscosity. Now, typically we will call a liquid
(05:31):
viscous if its viscosity is higher than that of waters,
and if the viscosity is lower than that of waters,
because water is not the least viscous material that we
know of, if it has a lower viscosity than water,
we call that fluid mobile. So some fluids are so
viscous that they can actually seem to be a solid.
(05:51):
And this leads us to that misinformation I was talking about.
It's one of those things that I hear bandied about
prey the well, not not not as frequently as it
used to, but it's one of those miss understandings that
gets passed around its fact every now and again, and
that is the idea that glass is one of these
(06:12):
fluids that glass is actually a fluid that is um
so viscous that it appears to be a solid, and
that is not true. Glass is not a very very
viscous fluid. It's a little more complicated than that. Uh So,
here's the basic idea. People have noticed that if they
look at windows and very old buildings like medieval churches,
(06:36):
they see that the base of the window is thicker
than the top of the window. And this has led
some people to conclude, to jump to a conclusion that
the reason why the base is thicker than the top
is that glass, over the course of centuries has been
(06:56):
flowing downward and that it's so low that it's not
detectable under normal situations. It's only over the course of
centuries that you can see the difference. Uh. Here's the
problem is that that's just not that's not the case.
That's not true. It's not what's happening. Uh. If you
(07:17):
look at the glass making approach in the Middle Ages,
you'll see why there's a thicker part of the pane
of glass. Glass was created generally speaking, in the Middle
Ages through something called the crown glass process. It's a
pretty neat idea pretty neat way of making glass windows.
(07:38):
Here's how it worked in general. First, you get your
raw materials to make glass, and in the Middle Ages
that was essentially sand and potash, and you mix it
together and you melt them in a very hot furnace.
Then you would get a glass blower with a pipe
and they would get roll out a lump of molten glass,
(07:59):
put on the ype blow out the glass. So they
expand the glass outward before flattening it, so they don't
just you know, create a globe of glass, they actually
flatten it back out. Then, with the flat glass, which
is still hot and still malleable, it hasn't cool to
the point where it is really solidified, you would put
that on a disk, a spinning disk, and the disk
(08:22):
spins around to draw out the glass to flatten it further.
Sort of like how a pizza maker will toss and
spend dough in the air in order to make that
circular pizza. It's kind of similar to that. So the
disc spins and the centripetal force, if you like this,
pushing the glass outward toward the edges. So then once
(08:44):
that's done, you would cut the glass into panes so
that you could fit them in a window. Now, that
would mean that when you would get anywhere close to
where the edge of the glass was, the outer edge,
because you put the glass on that disk and you
spun it around, the outer edge was thicker than the
rest of the glass, just because that's where the excess
(09:06):
was accumulating as it was being uh pushed outward due
to the spinning motion. So typically window makers would cut
pains so that a thicker edge would only be on
one side, and they put that side at the bottom
at the base of the window, so glass didn't flow
to the base over hundreds of years. It started out
(09:27):
like like that. It was like that from the beginning.
That being said, glass is a really interesting substance. It's
what we would call an amorphous solid, so saying that
it's a fluid or a liquid is not accurate. But
it is an amorphous solid, which is a little hinky
compared to other materials that you might be familiar with.
(09:49):
So typically not everything, obviously metals and glass being exceptions,
but a lot of solids have an ordered crystalline structure,
so that means the molecules are organized in a pretty
regular lattice. They form a nice repeating pattern that goes
throughout the entire material. When you heat up this solid,
(10:13):
those molecules start to shimmy and shake. Some of the
molecular bonds might start to break down a little bit,
the bonds between one molecule and another. The essentially the
crystalline order breaks down. And if you heat a solid
beyond its melting point, the crystalline structure completely breaks down
and molecules will begin to flow freely, or as freely
(10:34):
as the viscosity of that fluid allows, and there's a
very clear delineation between the solid and liquid stages. You
can see the difference molecularly from the way this substance
looks when it's in solid form versus in liquid form,
and we call that delineation that border between the two
(10:54):
the first order phase transition. It's obvious when you look
at it from a microscopic standpoint. I mean it's obvious
from a macroscopic standpoint too, because a solid behaves one way,
in a liquid behaves another way. Now, when you cool
a liquid down, its viscosity tends to increase. If you
(11:16):
introduce a nucleation site into the liquid, crystals can form
and you get that nice solid structure again, once you
get down below what the melting point was. Uh, but
glass doesn't do this. Glass doesn't form a crystalline structure.
Glasses viscosity increases, so it does what other fluids do
(11:38):
at that point. But since it doesn't crystallize, it solidifies
in a different way. The molecules actually form an irregular arrangement,
not that nice ordered structure that you see another solids,
but that a regular arrangement is still cohesive enough to
maintain rigidity. So glass does become a solid, It's just
(11:59):
not a crysp let solid. It's an amorphous solid. Jonathan
from two thousand nineteen breaking in to say, we'll be
right back after this quick break. Now, there's no first
order phase transition here. It's not like if you looked
(12:20):
at the liquid form of glass and the solid form
of glass, you would see a massive difference in the
molecular structure. But there is a second order transition. Now.
That transition is a little more subtle than first order
transitions and involves the thermal expansion and heat capacity of
a material, so it wouldn't be as obvious to casual
(12:44):
observation on a microscopic level, but there would still be
differences with the thermodynamics of the material, so we still
would say the glass is a solid, not a liquid.
All right, I'm done with glass now, I promise. I
had to go on that little track just because it
was related to the stuff I was talking about, and
I get really irritated seeing that one myth passed around
(13:06):
as fact. So now you know, if you ever go
through a a tour and the tour guide says and
the reason that the windows are thicker at the bottom
is because glass flows over the course of hundreds of years,
you can raise your hand and say, well, actually, and
tell them Josh Clark sent you, because I don't want
that kind of burden on me. I like being able
(13:27):
to take tours. Anyway, Let's get back to viscosty in general. So,
like I said earlier, viscosty is due to internal friction
of a liquid. And you might think that that sounds weird,
like how can a liquid have friction inside of it?
But we're talking about liquids specifically that have like molecules,
and those molecules can have a tendency to resist getting
(13:48):
by each other. So some molecules are more resistant to
slipping by each other than others, or a liquid could
actually have particles that are suspended in it. It could
be a suspension, which is different than just a pure liquid.
But if it's a suspension, it's got particles suspended within
the liquid at some level of density, right Like some
(14:12):
maybe a pretty weak suspension where you don't have a
whole lot, but others could have a greater density of
particles inside a suspension of fluid. Make chocolate bars, let's say,
and you're laying out melted chocolate into the mold for
the chocolate bars, uh, and it clogs up and you
have to stop production and clean out the clog and
(14:34):
get everything back up to temperature and start it all
over again. It's time consuming and expensive when that happens.
So one solution to preventing it from happening is dilute
the cacao more so that those particles don't clump up
as much because there there's a less dense coco component
(14:54):
in the fluid. That essentially means replacing cacao with something else,
typically something that is less viscous, like that oil that
fat essentially, so you usually add more fat to the
recipe so you get the more fat but less cacao. However,
it ends up flowing better and creates the chocolate bars
(15:16):
that you want without creating the clogs. But it's not
necessarily the best product you could create. It's just the
most convenient based upon the method of production. So that's
where this alternative solution comes in. If you could change
the shape of those cacao particles in the fluid so
that they packed together more effectively, you would reduce that viscosity,
(15:40):
that internal friction of the fluid. So imagine you've got
one of those inflated rubber balls, like like a kickball
or something. Now, imagine that you're able to grab hold
on either side of this ball and pull it outward
so that you're elongating it. Now it would become a
more of an oval shape, or as the researchers at
(16:04):
Temple University called them, prolate spheroids. Now, the interesting thing
about these prolate spheroids is if you align them in
the direction of the flow of chocolate, you can pack
more of them together. They have these elongated sides, and
they will fit together much more snuggly. You can create
chains of them and chocolate would flow much more readily.
(16:28):
But how do you change the shape of those COCU particles.
What is it that you could do to make them
actually assume a different shape than their natural globular ball
like shape. This is where electric fields come in. Uh,
we're gonna talk about applying magnetic or electric fields to
(16:50):
a fluid to changes viscosity. But first, this doesn't work
with every fluid. Uh. Not every fluid reacts to electric
fields and magnetic fields in a way that will alter
its viscosity. But it does work in fluids that have
certain non conducting or weakly conducting particles suspended in an
electrically insulating fluid. Now we call this a special type
(17:13):
of liquid, electro reological fluid. Electrohological fluids essentially means that
when you apply an electric or magnetic field to such
a fluid, it changes its viscosity. Sometimes we also call
them smart fluids, But more about that in a bit now. Interestingly,
the property was completely discovered by chance. There was an
(17:35):
inventor named Willis Winslow who observed the effect in the
nineteen forties, and he actually patented it in nineteen seven. Now,
for this reason, we sometimes call this effect of changing
an electroheological fluids viscosity the Winslow effect, and I'll mostly
be using that term from here here on out, because
(17:56):
there's only so many times I'm gonna be able to
say electroheological before my mouth just decides to rebel against
the rest of me and march out the door. And
as entertaining as that would be kind of needed. Hey,
it's modern day, Jonathan again. We're going to take another
quick break to thank our sponsor and we'll be right back,
(18:24):
all right. So, applying an electric or magnetic field to
such a fluid changes that fluids viscosity within meliseconds like
it's practically instantaneous, and if you remove the field, the
particles in the fluid will snap back to their original shape,
to the fluid's viscosity will return to what it normally
would be. So the change isn't permanent. It only persists
(18:48):
as long as the respective field persists, which is super
cool because you can do these temporary changes that are
really useful in specific situations and then have it go
back to normal and it's like it never happened in
the first place. But one thing to keep in mind
is the direction of the electric or magnetic field is
(19:09):
critically important when you want to make a particular effect. So,
in the case of chocolate, if you apply the electric
field perpendicular to the direction of flow, you will actually
increase the viscosity of the chocolate. You will make it
thicker more like a gel. Melted chocolate will turn into
(19:30):
this kind of thick gel. It'll otherwise have all the
same properties that had before, but the viscosity will increase dramatically. However,
if you were to apply that electric field in the
direction of the flow of chocolate, then you would decrease
the viscosity of chocolate and it will flow more freely
at that point. Now this makes some sense because imagine
(19:53):
that you have these elongated ovals, these uh prolate sphere poids. Right.
If you stand them vertically, then you could imagine them
slipping through a pipe very easily. If you laid them
out horizontally, you could imagine them ending up like like
(20:13):
blocking a pipe easily, because it's like trying to fit
a long stick through a narrow doorway. If you don't
turn it the right way, you're just gonna hit against
the door. This is making me think of my dog, Tibolt,
who has done this on numerous occasions. He just he
can't get it through his little doggy mind that he
needs to turn the stick vertical in order to move
it through a doorway. He just wants to charge ahead
(20:36):
full steam with the stick horizontal. In many other ways.
He's an intelligent dog, so we forgive him this lapse
of judgment. Anyway, the chocolate on a molecular level is
essentially the same thing. If you are applying this electric
field perpendicular to the flow of chocolate, then you get
this much thicker uh mixture. And then interesting side note,
(21:01):
the electro real logical properties of chocolate aren't a new discovery, right.
I mean, I covered this story for how stuff works
now because there was a new application of this property
with chocolate. But we actually knew that chocolate would react
this way already, at least to the point of increasing
the viscosity, because back in there was a Michigan State
(21:25):
University grad student who observed the Winslow effect on chocolate.
And his name is Dr Christopher R. Daubert, and as
professor Dr James Steph worked with him. They both conducted
experiments on liquid chocolate and observed the Winslow effect. Now,
in that experiment, Daubert was again increasing the viscostity, not
decreasing it. So he was turning chocolate into that thicker gel.
(21:48):
That the liquid chocolate into thick gel. Uh. It wasn't
until recently that we saw someone try and do the opposite.
So that brings us to the Temple University experiment. So
you have these researchers. They had worked on crude oil
and decrease the viscosity of crude oil, which is a
huge thing for the oil industry to be able to
(22:10):
uh move oil more effectively without the fear of clogs
or viscosity screwing up things that had been planned ahead
of time. They wanted to see if they could in
fact use a similar approach to have liquid chocolate move
more smoothly through a system so that manufacturers could save
money by not having to worry about cleaning up clogs
(22:33):
and shutting down production for maintenance. So they had to
test this hypothesis that an electric field directed in the
flow of liquid chocolate would reduce viscosity. So they built
a cool chocolate zapping gadget. It's not really a zapper,
that's kind of a it's kind of not entirely accurate,
(22:56):
but I like the idea of using electricity does zap
chocolate and make it better. That's just a oversimplification of
what happened, But that's okay. I'll I'll explain to you
what was actually going on. They built this thing where
it starts with a bit of a melting chamber. You
can just think of it as like a a pot.
It could even be a glass vial. Really, it could
(23:18):
just be any little container that can hold chocolate. They
put the chocolate in the container and they cover the container,
sealing it shut. Uh. They added compressed nitrogen gas into
the chamber simply really to to just increase the pressure
inside the chamber itself. The chamber was heated so that
you had chocolate melting into a liquid. There was a
(23:41):
thermocouple in there to make sure that the temperature was
correct so that the chocolate would not overheat or cool
down so much that it becomes solid again. And then
the base of this container was essentially a drain, so
there's like a hole at the bottom of the container
that liquid chocolate could float. Attached to that was a tube,
(24:02):
and inside the tube they put a series of metal
mesh screens and the screens were what generated the electric field.
They had electricity running to those screens and creating electric
field that way in the direction of the flow of chocolate,
so the chocolate would end up flowing very smoothly through
(24:23):
the tube and didn't have any issues. At the other end,
they had another vessel container that the liquid chocolate would
flow into, it would cool down solidify. So once that
liquid chocolate flowed through into the collecting vessel UH and
once it was free of the electric field, the cacao
particles they went back to their original shape immediately. Again,
(24:47):
they didn't have to transform or anything. It wasn't a
gradual process. They moved back into those globe shapes that
they typically are in, and the chocolate cooled and solidified
and was to all intents and purposes, indistinguishable from the
chocolate that was being fed through at the top, you know,
at that top chamber. So they were able to reduce
(25:10):
the viscosity of the flowing chocolate UH and to the
to the point where it was no there were no
issues of clogging. It was perfectly fine. So they were
able to prove that their hypothesis was correct, that in fact,
this electric field applied in this way would decrease chocolates viscosity, hooray.
(25:34):
But there's more to it than that, So this experiment
was not just a success. The researchers actually realized that
it had a lot more implications than just having chocolate
flow freely through a machine. Uh that Again, the reason
why chocolate has such a relatively high fat content is
to create that oily fluid to reduce viscosity, to have
(25:55):
the cacao particles suspended within it at a density that's
low enough so that you're not likely to clog up
the machines. But if you use this approach, if you
use the electric fields to reduce the viscosity, you don't
need as much oil or fat in your chocolate content.
(26:16):
You could actually start with a recipe that has less
fat in it, and the electric fields would take care
of the viscosity problem, so you don't have to have
as much fat there. That also means you can have
more cacao in your mixture. It could be a higher
proportion of the overall recipe. So they found that they
(26:38):
could reduce the fat content in certain types of chocolate
by as much as twenty percent and still have no
negative impact on the fluid's viscosity. Now it depends on
what type of chocolate they were using. They were they
were actually using name brand chocolates, you know, like like
chocolate bars, you know. They would try different types, and
(27:00):
depending on the type, they could actually end up removing
up to the fat in the mixture and still have
the chocolate flow without any problems. And beyond that, the
researchers said that people who were tasting the chocolate afterward,
because keep in mind, other than the fact that there
was less fat in it, there was really no difference
(27:21):
between the original chocolate and the end result, they said
that the end result chocolate actually tasted better to them.
He said, I had a more intense cacao flavor. It
was more chocolated than the original chocolate. Now that could
be just subjective, or it could be purely psychological, but
it's not outside the realm of possibility that by increasing
(27:45):
the the proportion of chocolate of cocao in your mixture,
because you've removed some of the fat so you've got
more cacao per unit of chocolate than you would previously,
that you would all so effect the taste. It is
entirely possible that that is true. It hasn't really been
tested on a scientific level. It's mostly people saying this
(28:09):
tastes really good. Also, I should mention this is not
the same as fat free chocolate. Fat free chocolate is
essentially using some different type of fluid other than oil
to suspend cocow particles. So fat free chocolate is has
that particular weird taste. It's not It's not the same
as the stuff that Typal University was producing. So uh,
(28:34):
I just want to clear that up. It's not like
you would take a bite of a brand new chocolate
bar that was made using this procedure and they, oh,
this tastes like fat free chocolate. No, So the end
result here is that we could end up with better
tasting chocolate with less fat in it in the future,
which seems pretty awesome to me. Now, earlier I mentioned
(28:57):
that electro rheological fluids are also called smart fluids. That's
because these fluids can change their viscosti almost instantly in
the presence of an electric or magnetic field, and then
go right back to what they were before once the
field has turned off, and they become really important in
ways beyond making superior chocolate. For example, car manufacturers have
(29:18):
been using smart fluids and suspension and breaking systems. Uh.
The fluid can actually go from relatively thin too thick
in just a moment's notice, which makes it superior to
a lot of mechanical solutions that would take time to
propagate through a system. And you can have a variable
suspension in this way. Imagine that you have a suspension,
it's a fluid suspension, like literally it's a suspension for
(29:40):
a car with fluid in it, not that it was
a fluid that has a suspension in it. It's kind
of confusing. So car suspension's got fluid in it. Very
high end sports cars have these, and you can set
your suspension to different modes, like you can predetermine which
mode you want at any given time. So let's say
you're gonna be driving on like a racetrack, a nice
(30:01):
smooth racetrack, and you're really gonna push the car to
its limits. You might want a pretty stiff suspension for
that to really be able to feel the car as
you're driving along this very smooth surface. But that stiff
suspension would be torture device if you were driving down
(30:22):
a normal everyday road that had some bumps and maybe
some potholes in it. That would be very jarring. You
would feel every single little bump. So in that case,
you'd want a more you know, loose suspension, a little
spring in it. So you might want to reduce the
viscosity of the fluid inside the suspension to allow for
more uh give really, and you could do that with
(30:48):
a smart fluid and just change the electric or magnetic
field that ends up affecting the viscosity of the fluid.
So you can actually have settings and say I want
a very stiff suspension and in this circumstance, and so
it generates the electric field, the viscosty increases and you
get your stiff suspension, or he might say, oh, I
want it to be a more forgiving suspension, and it
(31:10):
turns off that electric field, the viscosity decreases and you
have your more your your suspension when more given it.
It's a pretty cool idea. At chat with Scott Benjamin
about this before I came in here, he was very
interested when I started talking about chocolate, but then when
I started talking about smart fluids, he really lit up
because he knew exactly what I was talking about. I mean,
Scott is a car genius and knows everything there is
(31:33):
to know about cars, it seems. So we had a
good discussion about, you know, the physical properties of smart
fluids and why they behave the way they do. So
this technology could be used in lots of different applications
moving forward. When you can induce a mechanical change in
a fluid with something as simple as an electric or
magnetic field, a lot of different opportunities open up. But
(31:55):
for me, you know, I'm happy with the chocolate thing.
I'm going to settle for that. I do love me
some chocolate, al right, guys, Well, this kind of wraps
up this episode where I really wanted to look at
the physics and technology behind ostensibly making chocolate manufacturing more
(32:16):
smooth and efficient, but ultimately could result in better, more delicious,
less fattening chocolate. That doesn't necessarily mean we should all
go out and eat more chocolate, by the way, not
that that ever stops me, but I feel like, as
an adult, I have to at least say, don't go
out and just eat more chocolate. Even if we ultimately
have chocolate with less fat in it. That's not that's
(32:37):
not a good excuse. Uh, do as I say, not
as I do. Anyway, I wanted to invite you guys
to get in touch with me. Let me know what
sort of topics he would like me to cover in
the future. I've got some interesting future topics lined up.
He would like a quick peek into the future. Pretty soon,
I'm going to be doing an episode about the story
(32:58):
of Pisar. I'm gonna do a full maybe two parter
on that, because it's a it's a good long story.
I've got a an interview lined up with some folks
to talk about Amazon Alexa and developing apps for that
and what Alexa might mean in the future. I've got
UH an episode lined up with Mr Scott Benjamin, whom
(33:19):
I just mentioned about robo rites, and also the tragic
tale of the first death and an autonomously operated vehicle. Guys,
I hope you enjoyed that episode, the classic how Tech
could Make Better Chocolate? And we'll have a couple more reruns,
probably in the next few days. But don't worry. As
(33:41):
I said, we have new episodes planned UH in a
very short order, including the annual Lovely Year and Review
episode that typically takes me about four times longer to
research and right than any other episode because I have
to look back at all the different big stories from
the previous twelve months. But I do it because one
it's important and too I love you guys, so I
(34:04):
hope you guys enjoyed this. If you have any suggestions
or questions or anything like that, send me an email
the addresses tech stuff at how stuff works dot com,
or drop me a line on Facebook or Twitter. The
handle for both of those is tech stuff h s W.
Don't forget to go to our website that's text stuff
podcast dot com, that has an archive of every single
episode we've ever published, plus a link to our online
(34:24):
store where every purchase you make goes to help the
show and we greatly appreciate it, and I'll talk to
you again really soon. Text Stuff is a production of
I Heart Radio's How Stuff Works. For more podcasts from
my heart Radio, visit the i heart Radio app, Apple Podcasts,
or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.
Welcome to tech Stuff, a production of I Heart Radios
How Stuff Works. Hey there, and welcome to tech Stuff.
I'm your host, Jonathan Strickland. I'm an executive producer with
I Heart Radio and I love all things tech, and guys,
things have gotten a little hectic over at I Heart
Radio headquarters. We're running around all over the place working
(00:27):
on special projects. And the way it impacts us right now, guys,
is that I just haven't had the time to be
able to research and write full new episodes. So we're
gonna be doing a couple of reruns just for the
time being. Don't worry. New episodes are right around the corner.
I just I need to be in the same city
for two days in a row and then I think
(00:50):
I can probably you know, bang a couple out. But
in the meantime, I thought maybe we would enjoy this episode,
which originally aired back in two thousand sixteen. It's called
How Tech Could Make Better Chocolate, and it's all about
a a Temple University project in which scientists were using
electric fields to improve chocolate. And you know, being the
(01:11):
holiday season with lots of chocolate all around, I figured
what better time to revisit this than Now, so enjoy
this classic episode. How Stuff Works Now if you aren't familiar,
is our more news oriented page, So if you go
to now dot how stuff works dot com you can
see it. We have a lot more stories that are
(01:32):
reflective of things that are unfolding now, thus the name,
and we also do video for that. There's also a
podcast hosted by Lauren Vogelbaum. You can subscribe to that
How Stuff Works Now. It's a summary of some of
the stories that we cover each week. So if you're
not familiar with that, go check it out. It's pretty awesome. Anyway,
(01:52):
I did this story about chocolate and making sure you
could reduce the viscosity of liquid chocolate so that it
does and gum up stuff because one of the challenges
of working with chocolate is making sure that it doesn't
clog up the pipes like Augustus Gloop in Willy Wonka.
So a consulting firm working on behalf of Mars Incorporated,
(02:14):
which is a giant candy company that makes a lot
of different chocolate products. This consulting firm went to a
group of physicists at Temple University, and physicist is one
of those words. I have difficulty pronouncing. I think I
might just say scientists. Scientists at Temple University. Hey, that's
way better. And these guys have developed a method to
(02:35):
make crude oil flow more easily through pipes using electric fields.
So the question that the consulting firm had was could
you do the same thing you did for crude oil
for chocolate? And here's a spoiler alert, Yeah they could.
But I want to talk more about what they did
and how they did it because it's it's a really
(02:56):
interesting story. So I'm gonna go into a bit more
detail about the physics and the technology behind the scientist
solution for this problem. It's pretty cool and a lot
of it was stuff I had no idea about before
I began to research the story. So today's episode is
going to be about chocolate. It's gonna be about viscous fluids,
(03:18):
about electro real logical fluids, and how an electric field
can change their fluid I properties, specifically viscosity. So yeah,
this episode is gonna be science heavy. But here's also chocolate,
so stick around. You know, everyone loves chocolate. So let's
get into the physics first. Now, fluid dynamics is pretty
(03:39):
complicated and also there's some stuff that's related to this
that falls into the category of misinformation about viscosity. So
I'll be talking a lot about not just the principles
in general, but some specific uh myths that I would
like to bust, as some of my former workers used
(04:00):
to do on a regular basis. So, first of all,
viscosity is a property of fluids or semi fluids, and
it can be described as a fluids thickness or stickiness
and its resistance to flowing due to internal friction. More accurately,
viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluids
deformation due to tensile or shear stress. Now, shear stress
(04:25):
is mechanical stress that's parallel to the surface of that substance.
So you could think of sheer stress as it's not perpendicular.
It's not like an impact, right, it's more of a
tearing ten style. Stress is a pulling stress rather than
a compression stress. So again, instead of compressing stuff closer together,
(04:47):
it's about pulling stuff further apart. And water has a
pretty low viscosity, Honey has a very high viscosity. So
we actually measure viscosity and units called poises p o
I s e s. Water at room temperature twenty degrease
celsius or so has a viscosity of zero point zero
(05:09):
one poises or a center poise. In other words, a
thick oil might have a viscosity of one point zero poise. Now,
we measure viscosity with a viscometer. I'm not making that up.
That's actually the name of the tool used to measure
a fluids viscosity. Now, typically we will call a liquid
(05:31):
viscous if its viscosity is higher than that of waters,
and if the viscosity is lower than that of waters,
because water is not the least viscous material that we
know of, if it has a lower viscosity than water,
we call that fluid mobile. So some fluids are so
viscous that they can actually seem to be a solid.
(05:51):
And this leads us to that misinformation I was talking about.
It's one of those things that I hear bandied about
prey the well, not not not as frequently as it
used to, but it's one of those miss understandings that
gets passed around its fact every now and again, and
that is the idea that glass is one of these
(06:12):
fluids that glass is actually a fluid that is um
so viscous that it appears to be a solid, and
that is not true. Glass is not a very very
viscous fluid. It's a little more complicated than that. Uh So,
here's the basic idea. People have noticed that if they
look at windows and very old buildings like medieval churches,
(06:36):
they see that the base of the window is thicker
than the top of the window. And this has led
some people to conclude, to jump to a conclusion that
the reason why the base is thicker than the top
is that glass, over the course of centuries has been
(06:56):
flowing downward and that it's so low that it's not
detectable under normal situations. It's only over the course of
centuries that you can see the difference. Uh. Here's the
problem is that that's just not that's not the case.
That's not true. It's not what's happening. Uh. If you
(07:17):
look at the glass making approach in the Middle Ages,
you'll see why there's a thicker part of the pane
of glass. Glass was created generally speaking, in the Middle
Ages through something called the crown glass process. It's a
pretty neat idea pretty neat way of making glass windows.
(07:38):
Here's how it worked in general. First, you get your
raw materials to make glass, and in the Middle Ages
that was essentially sand and potash, and you mix it
together and you melt them in a very hot furnace.
Then you would get a glass blower with a pipe
and they would get roll out a lump of molten glass,
(07:59):
put on the ype blow out the glass. So they
expand the glass outward before flattening it, so they don't
just you know, create a globe of glass, they actually
flatten it back out. Then, with the flat glass, which
is still hot and still malleable, it hasn't cool to
the point where it is really solidified, you would put
that on a disk, a spinning disk, and the disk
(08:22):
spins around to draw out the glass to flatten it further.
Sort of like how a pizza maker will toss and
spend dough in the air in order to make that
circular pizza. It's kind of similar to that. So the
disc spins and the centripetal force, if you like this,
pushing the glass outward toward the edges. So then once
(08:44):
that's done, you would cut the glass into panes so
that you could fit them in a window. Now, that
would mean that when you would get anywhere close to
where the edge of the glass was, the outer edge,
because you put the glass on that disk and you
spun it around, the outer edge was thicker than the
rest of the glass, just because that's where the excess
(09:06):
was accumulating as it was being uh pushed outward due
to the spinning motion. So typically window makers would cut
pains so that a thicker edge would only be on
one side, and they put that side at the bottom
at the base of the window, so glass didn't flow
to the base over hundreds of years. It started out
(09:27):
like like that. It was like that from the beginning.
That being said, glass is a really interesting substance. It's
what we would call an amorphous solid, so saying that
it's a fluid or a liquid is not accurate. But
it is an amorphous solid, which is a little hinky
compared to other materials that you might be familiar with.
(09:49):
So typically not everything, obviously metals and glass being exceptions,
but a lot of solids have an ordered crystalline structure,
so that means the molecules are organized in a pretty
regular lattice. They form a nice repeating pattern that goes
throughout the entire material. When you heat up this solid,
(10:13):
those molecules start to shimmy and shake. Some of the
molecular bonds might start to break down a little bit,
the bonds between one molecule and another. The essentially the
crystalline order breaks down. And if you heat a solid
beyond its melting point, the crystalline structure completely breaks down
and molecules will begin to flow freely, or as freely
(10:34):
as the viscosity of that fluid allows, and there's a
very clear delineation between the solid and liquid stages. You
can see the difference molecularly from the way this substance
looks when it's in solid form versus in liquid form,
and we call that delineation that border between the two
(10:54):
the first order phase transition. It's obvious when you look
at it from a microscopic standpoint. I mean it's obvious
from a macroscopic standpoint too, because a solid behaves one way,
in a liquid behaves another way. Now, when you cool
a liquid down, its viscosity tends to increase. If you
(11:16):
introduce a nucleation site into the liquid, crystals can form
and you get that nice solid structure again, once you
get down below what the melting point was. Uh, but
glass doesn't do this. Glass doesn't form a crystalline structure.
Glasses viscosity increases, so it does what other fluids do
(11:38):
at that point. But since it doesn't crystallize, it solidifies
in a different way. The molecules actually form an irregular arrangement,
not that nice ordered structure that you see another solids,
but that a regular arrangement is still cohesive enough to
maintain rigidity. So glass does become a solid, It's just
(11:59):
not a crysp let solid. It's an amorphous solid. Jonathan
from two thousand nineteen breaking in to say, we'll be
right back after this quick break. Now, there's no first
order phase transition here. It's not like if you looked
(12:20):
at the liquid form of glass and the solid form
of glass, you would see a massive difference in the
molecular structure. But there is a second order transition. Now.
That transition is a little more subtle than first order
transitions and involves the thermal expansion and heat capacity of
a material, so it wouldn't be as obvious to casual
(12:44):
observation on a microscopic level, but there would still be
differences with the thermodynamics of the material, so we still
would say the glass is a solid, not a liquid.
All right, I'm done with glass now, I promise. I
had to go on that little track just because it
was related to the stuff I was talking about, and
I get really irritated seeing that one myth passed around
(13:06):
as fact. So now you know, if you ever go
through a a tour and the tour guide says and
the reason that the windows are thicker at the bottom
is because glass flows over the course of hundreds of years,
you can raise your hand and say, well, actually, and
tell them Josh Clark sent you, because I don't want
that kind of burden on me. I like being able
(13:27):
to take tours. Anyway, Let's get back to viscosty in general. So,
like I said earlier, viscosty is due to internal friction
of a liquid. And you might think that that sounds weird,
like how can a liquid have friction inside of it?
But we're talking about liquids specifically that have like molecules,
and those molecules can have a tendency to resist getting
(13:48):
by each other. So some molecules are more resistant to
slipping by each other than others, or a liquid could
actually have particles that are suspended in it. It could
be a suspension, which is different than just a pure liquid.
But if it's a suspension, it's got particles suspended within
the liquid at some level of density, right Like some
(14:12):
maybe a pretty weak suspension where you don't have a
whole lot, but others could have a greater density of
particles inside a suspension of fluid. Make chocolate bars, let's say,
and you're laying out melted chocolate into the mold for
the chocolate bars, uh, and it clogs up and you
have to stop production and clean out the clog and
(14:34):
get everything back up to temperature and start it all
over again. It's time consuming and expensive when that happens.
So one solution to preventing it from happening is dilute
the cacao more so that those particles don't clump up
as much because there there's a less dense coco component
(14:54):
in the fluid. That essentially means replacing cacao with something else,
typically something that is less viscous, like that oil that
fat essentially, so you usually add more fat to the
recipe so you get the more fat but less cacao. However,
it ends up flowing better and creates the chocolate bars
(15:16):
that you want without creating the clogs. But it's not
necessarily the best product you could create. It's just the
most convenient based upon the method of production. So that's
where this alternative solution comes in. If you could change
the shape of those cacao particles in the fluid so
that they packed together more effectively, you would reduce that viscosity,
(15:40):
that internal friction of the fluid. So imagine you've got
one of those inflated rubber balls, like like a kickball
or something. Now, imagine that you're able to grab hold
on either side of this ball and pull it outward
so that you're elongating it. Now it would become a
more of an oval shape, or as the researchers at
(16:04):
Temple University called them, prolate spheroids. Now, the interesting thing
about these prolate spheroids is if you align them in
the direction of the flow of chocolate, you can pack
more of them together. They have these elongated sides, and
they will fit together much more snuggly. You can create
chains of them and chocolate would flow much more readily.
(16:28):
But how do you change the shape of those COCU particles.
What is it that you could do to make them
actually assume a different shape than their natural globular ball
like shape. This is where electric fields come in. Uh,
we're gonna talk about applying magnetic or electric fields to
(16:50):
a fluid to changes viscosity. But first, this doesn't work
with every fluid. Uh. Not every fluid reacts to electric
fields and magnetic fields in a way that will alter
its viscosity. But it does work in fluids that have
certain non conducting or weakly conducting particles suspended in an
electrically insulating fluid. Now we call this a special type
(17:13):
of liquid, electro reological fluid. Electrohological fluids essentially means that
when you apply an electric or magnetic field to such
a fluid, it changes its viscosity. Sometimes we also call
them smart fluids, But more about that in a bit now. Interestingly,
the property was completely discovered by chance. There was an
(17:35):
inventor named Willis Winslow who observed the effect in the
nineteen forties, and he actually patented it in nineteen seven. Now,
for this reason, we sometimes call this effect of changing
an electroheological fluids viscosity the Winslow effect, and I'll mostly
be using that term from here here on out, because
(17:56):
there's only so many times I'm gonna be able to
say electroheological before my mouth just decides to rebel against
the rest of me and march out the door. And
as entertaining as that would be kind of needed. Hey,
it's modern day, Jonathan again. We're going to take another
quick break to thank our sponsor and we'll be right back,
(18:24):
all right. So, applying an electric or magnetic field to
such a fluid changes that fluids viscosity within meliseconds like
it's practically instantaneous, and if you remove the field, the
particles in the fluid will snap back to their original shape,
to the fluid's viscosity will return to what it normally
would be. So the change isn't permanent. It only persists
(18:48):
as long as the respective field persists, which is super
cool because you can do these temporary changes that are
really useful in specific situations and then have it go
back to normal and it's like it never happened in
the first place. But one thing to keep in mind
is the direction of the electric or magnetic field is
(19:09):
critically important when you want to make a particular effect. So,
in the case of chocolate, if you apply the electric
field perpendicular to the direction of flow, you will actually
increase the viscosity of the chocolate. You will make it
thicker more like a gel. Melted chocolate will turn into
(19:30):
this kind of thick gel. It'll otherwise have all the
same properties that had before, but the viscosity will increase dramatically. However,
if you were to apply that electric field in the
direction of the flow of chocolate, then you would decrease
the viscosity of chocolate and it will flow more freely
at that point. Now this makes some sense because imagine
(19:53):
that you have these elongated ovals, these uh prolate sphere poids. Right.
If you stand them vertically, then you could imagine them
slipping through a pipe very easily. If you laid them
out horizontally, you could imagine them ending up like like
(20:13):
blocking a pipe easily, because it's like trying to fit
a long stick through a narrow doorway. If you don't
turn it the right way, you're just gonna hit against
the door. This is making me think of my dog, Tibolt,
who has done this on numerous occasions. He just he
can't get it through his little doggy mind that he
needs to turn the stick vertical in order to move
it through a doorway. He just wants to charge ahead
(20:36):
full steam with the stick horizontal. In many other ways.
He's an intelligent dog, so we forgive him this lapse
of judgment. Anyway, the chocolate on a molecular level is
essentially the same thing. If you are applying this electric
field perpendicular to the flow of chocolate, then you get
this much thicker uh mixture. And then interesting side note,
(21:01):
the electro real logical properties of chocolate aren't a new discovery, right.
I mean, I covered this story for how stuff works
now because there was a new application of this property
with chocolate. But we actually knew that chocolate would react
this way already, at least to the point of increasing
the viscosity, because back in there was a Michigan State
(21:25):
University grad student who observed the Winslow effect on chocolate.
And his name is Dr Christopher R. Daubert, and as
professor Dr James Steph worked with him. They both conducted
experiments on liquid chocolate and observed the Winslow effect. Now,
in that experiment, Daubert was again increasing the viscostity, not
decreasing it. So he was turning chocolate into that thicker gel.
(21:48):
That the liquid chocolate into thick gel. Uh. It wasn't
until recently that we saw someone try and do the opposite.
So that brings us to the Temple University experiment. So
you have these researchers. They had worked on crude oil
and decrease the viscosity of crude oil, which is a
huge thing for the oil industry to be able to
(22:10):
uh move oil more effectively without the fear of clogs
or viscosity screwing up things that had been planned ahead
of time. They wanted to see if they could in
fact use a similar approach to have liquid chocolate move
more smoothly through a system so that manufacturers could save
money by not having to worry about cleaning up clogs
(22:33):
and shutting down production for maintenance. So they had to
test this hypothesis that an electric field directed in the
flow of liquid chocolate would reduce viscosity. So they built
a cool chocolate zapping gadget. It's not really a zapper,
that's kind of a it's kind of not entirely accurate,
(22:56):
but I like the idea of using electricity does zap
chocolate and make it better. That's just a oversimplification of
what happened, But that's okay. I'll I'll explain to you
what was actually going on. They built this thing where
it starts with a bit of a melting chamber. You
can just think of it as like a a pot.
It could even be a glass vial. Really, it could
(23:18):
just be any little container that can hold chocolate. They
put the chocolate in the container and they cover the container,
sealing it shut. Uh. They added compressed nitrogen gas into
the chamber simply really to to just increase the pressure
inside the chamber itself. The chamber was heated so that
you had chocolate melting into a liquid. There was a
(23:41):
thermocouple in there to make sure that the temperature was
correct so that the chocolate would not overheat or cool
down so much that it becomes solid again. And then
the base of this container was essentially a drain, so
there's like a hole at the bottom of the container
that liquid chocolate could float. Attached to that was a tube,
(24:02):
and inside the tube they put a series of metal
mesh screens and the screens were what generated the electric field.
They had electricity running to those screens and creating electric
field that way in the direction of the flow of chocolate,
so the chocolate would end up flowing very smoothly through
(24:23):
the tube and didn't have any issues. At the other end,
they had another vessel container that the liquid chocolate would
flow into, it would cool down solidify. So once that
liquid chocolate flowed through into the collecting vessel UH and
once it was free of the electric field, the cacao
particles they went back to their original shape immediately. Again,
(24:47):
they didn't have to transform or anything. It wasn't a
gradual process. They moved back into those globe shapes that
they typically are in, and the chocolate cooled and solidified
and was to all intents and purposes, indistinguishable from the
chocolate that was being fed through at the top, you know,
at that top chamber. So they were able to reduce
(25:10):
the viscosity of the flowing chocolate UH and to the
to the point where it was no there were no
issues of clogging. It was perfectly fine. So they were
able to prove that their hypothesis was correct, that in fact,
this electric field applied in this way would decrease chocolates viscosity, hooray.
(25:34):
But there's more to it than that, So this experiment
was not just a success. The researchers actually realized that
it had a lot more implications than just having chocolate
flow freely through a machine. Uh that Again, the reason
why chocolate has such a relatively high fat content is
to create that oily fluid to reduce viscosity, to have
(25:55):
the cacao particles suspended within it at a density that's
low enough so that you're not likely to clog up
the machines. But if you use this approach, if you
use the electric fields to reduce the viscosity, you don't
need as much oil or fat in your chocolate content.
(26:16):
You could actually start with a recipe that has less
fat in it, and the electric fields would take care
of the viscosity problem, so you don't have to have
as much fat there. That also means you can have
more cacao in your mixture. It could be a higher
proportion of the overall recipe. So they found that they
(26:38):
could reduce the fat content in certain types of chocolate
by as much as twenty percent and still have no
negative impact on the fluid's viscosity. Now it depends on
what type of chocolate they were using. They were they
were actually using name brand chocolates, you know, like like
chocolate bars, you know. They would try different types, and
(27:00):
depending on the type, they could actually end up removing
up to the fat in the mixture and still have
the chocolate flow without any problems. And beyond that, the
researchers said that people who were tasting the chocolate afterward,
because keep in mind, other than the fact that there
was less fat in it, there was really no difference
(27:21):
between the original chocolate and the end result, they said
that the end result chocolate actually tasted better to them.
He said, I had a more intense cacao flavor. It
was more chocolated than the original chocolate. Now that could
be just subjective, or it could be purely psychological, but
it's not outside the realm of possibility that by increasing
(27:45):
the the proportion of chocolate of cocao in your mixture,
because you've removed some of the fat so you've got
more cacao per unit of chocolate than you would previously,
that you would all so effect the taste. It is
entirely possible that that is true. It hasn't really been
tested on a scientific level. It's mostly people saying this
(28:09):
tastes really good. Also, I should mention this is not
the same as fat free chocolate. Fat free chocolate is
essentially using some different type of fluid other than oil
to suspend cocow particles. So fat free chocolate is has
that particular weird taste. It's not It's not the same
as the stuff that Typal University was producing. So uh,
(28:34):
I just want to clear that up. It's not like
you would take a bite of a brand new chocolate
bar that was made using this procedure and they, oh,
this tastes like fat free chocolate. No, So the end
result here is that we could end up with better
tasting chocolate with less fat in it in the future,
which seems pretty awesome to me. Now, earlier I mentioned
(28:57):
that electro rheological fluids are also called smart fluids. That's
because these fluids can change their viscosti almost instantly in
the presence of an electric or magnetic field, and then
go right back to what they were before once the
field has turned off, and they become really important in
ways beyond making superior chocolate. For example, car manufacturers have
(29:18):
been using smart fluids and suspension and breaking systems. Uh.
The fluid can actually go from relatively thin too thick
in just a moment's notice, which makes it superior to
a lot of mechanical solutions that would take time to
propagate through a system. And you can have a variable
suspension in this way. Imagine that you have a suspension,
it's a fluid suspension, like literally it's a suspension for
(29:40):
a car with fluid in it, not that it was
a fluid that has a suspension in it. It's kind
of confusing. So car suspension's got fluid in it. Very
high end sports cars have these, and you can set
your suspension to different modes, like you can predetermine which
mode you want at any given time. So let's say
you're gonna be driving on like a racetrack, a nice
(30:01):
smooth racetrack, and you're really gonna push the car to
its limits. You might want a pretty stiff suspension for
that to really be able to feel the car as
you're driving along this very smooth surface. But that stiff
suspension would be torture device if you were driving down
(30:22):
a normal everyday road that had some bumps and maybe
some potholes in it. That would be very jarring. You
would feel every single little bump. So in that case,
you'd want a more you know, loose suspension, a little
spring in it. So you might want to reduce the
viscosity of the fluid inside the suspension to allow for
more uh give really, and you could do that with
(30:48):
a smart fluid and just change the electric or magnetic
field that ends up affecting the viscosity of the fluid.
So you can actually have settings and say I want
a very stiff suspension and in this circumstance, and so
it generates the electric field, the viscosty increases and you
get your stiff suspension, or he might say, oh, I
want it to be a more forgiving suspension, and it
(31:10):
turns off that electric field, the viscosity decreases and you
have your more your your suspension when more given it.
It's a pretty cool idea. At chat with Scott Benjamin
about this before I came in here, he was very
interested when I started talking about chocolate, but then when
I started talking about smart fluids, he really lit up
because he knew exactly what I was talking about. I mean,
Scott is a car genius and knows everything there is
(31:33):
to know about cars, it seems. So we had a
good discussion about, you know, the physical properties of smart
fluids and why they behave the way they do. So
this technology could be used in lots of different applications
moving forward. When you can induce a mechanical change in
a fluid with something as simple as an electric or
magnetic field, a lot of different opportunities open up. But
(31:55):
for me, you know, I'm happy with the chocolate thing.
I'm going to settle for that. I do love me
some chocolate, al right, guys, Well, this kind of wraps
up this episode where I really wanted to look at
the physics and technology behind ostensibly making chocolate manufacturing more
(32:16):
smooth and efficient, but ultimately could result in better, more delicious,
less fattening chocolate. That doesn't necessarily mean we should all
go out and eat more chocolate, by the way, not
that that ever stops me, but I feel like, as
an adult, I have to at least say, don't go
out and just eat more chocolate. Even if we ultimately
have chocolate with less fat in it. That's not that's
(32:37):
not a good excuse. Uh, do as I say, not
as I do. Anyway, I wanted to invite you guys
to get in touch with me. Let me know what
sort of topics he would like me to cover in
the future. I've got some interesting future topics lined up.
He would like a quick peek into the future. Pretty soon,
I'm going to be doing an episode about the story
(32:58):
of Pisar. I'm gonna do a full maybe two parter
on that, because it's a it's a good long story.
I've got a an interview lined up with some folks
to talk about Amazon Alexa and developing apps for that
and what Alexa might mean in the future. I've got
UH an episode lined up with Mr Scott Benjamin, whom
(33:19):
I just mentioned about robo rites, and also the tragic
tale of the first death and an autonomously operated vehicle. Guys,
I hope you enjoyed that episode, the classic how Tech
could Make Better Chocolate? And we'll have a couple more reruns,
probably in the next few days. But don't worry. As
(33:41):
I said, we have new episodes planned UH in a
very short order, including the annual Lovely Year and Review
episode that typically takes me about four times longer to
research and right than any other episode because I have
to look back at all the different big stories from
the previous twelve months. But I do it because one
it's important and too I love you guys, so I
(34:04):
hope you guys enjoyed this. If you have any suggestions
or questions or anything like that, send me an email
the addresses tech stuff at how stuff works dot com,
or drop me a line on Facebook or Twitter. The
handle for both of those is tech stuff h s W.
Don't forget to go to our website that's text stuff
podcast dot com, that has an archive of every single
episode we've ever published, plus a link to our online
(34:24):
store where every purchase you make goes to help the
show and we greatly appreciate it, and I'll talk to
you again really soon. Text Stuff is a production of
I Heart Radio's How Stuff Works. For more podcasts from
my heart Radio, visit the i heart Radio app, Apple Podcasts,
or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.
TechStuff News
Hosts And Creators
Oz Woloshyn
Karah Preiss
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