August 18, 2025 • 49 mins
Step into the world of Giulio Raimondo, better known as Cardinal Mazarin, whose tenure as Richelieus chosen successor reshaped the landscape of 17th-century France. A master diplomat, Mazarin navigated the complexities of power while maintaining a close, possibly secretive relationship with the Queen-Mother, Anne of Austria. Together, they faced the tumultuous Fronde rebellion, emerging victorious with the strategic brilliance of military commander Turenne by their side. By the time of his death in 1661, Mazarin had not only upheld Richelieus ambitious foreign policy but had also elevated the young Louis XIV to the throne, establishing him as the absolute monarch of one of Europes most formidable nations. As historian Arthur Hassall noted, Mazarins legacy was built on patience, perseverance, and sagacity. (Pamela Nagami)
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Speaker 1 (00:00):
Chapter eight of Mazarin by Arthur Hassel. This LibriVox recording
is in the public domain. Recording by Pamel and Agami
The League of the Rhine and the Peace of the
Pyrenees sixteen fifty eight to sixteen fifty nine. The Treaty
(00:22):
of Paris was not made a month too soon for
the campaign opened disastrously for France. The Spaniards captured Sanguia
in March, and in June cone De forced Turin to
abandon the siege of Cambre. But after these failures, success
attended the arms of the French and English. Don Juan
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of Austria, who commanded the Spanish troops, was incapable. Mont
Medi capitulated to the French in August, and Turin not
only captured Savenon but compelled the Spaniards to raise the
siege of Meanwhile, Louis the fourteenth had reviewed the English
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forces at Montrey, and after a siege of four days,
Mardike surrendered on October three to Turin, who handed it
over to his English allies. This success strengthened the good
relations existing between Mazarin and Cromwell, though the session of
Mardike to England called forth loud protestations from those who
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disliked the English alliance. At the same time, complaints were
made in England that Dunkirk had not been captured. Mazarin
pointed out to Bordeaux that the English forces had arrived
late and that Spain had thrown reinforcements into Dunkirk, and
Gravelin he urged that more English troops should be sent
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to defend Mardike from the attacks of the Spanish forces.
Till the following summer, the combined English and French armies
worked hard in strengthening their position preparatory to an onslaught
on Dunkirk. Meanwhile, Mazarin was busy at mess In conducting
some delicate negotiations. The Emperor, Ferdinand the Third, had died
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on April first, sixteen fifty seven. In spite of the
terms of the Peace of Westphalia, he had constantly assisted
the Spaniards, and Mazarin had frequently protested against his violations
of the treaty. In August sixteen fifty six, Mazarin wrote
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to de Gravelle, the French representative at Mice, that the
Emperor had not only supplied Spain with troops, but had
lately resolved to send into Italy some ten thousand men
to attack the Duke of Modena, the ally of France.
Mazarren further remarked that the emperor's conduct was due to
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the influence of the Spaniards. In sixteen forty nine, Philip,
the fourth, King of Spain had married Maria Anne of Austria,
daughter of Ferdinand. In consequence of this marriage, said Mazarin,
the Spaniards think they are masters of the Imperial court
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and therefore of all Germany. These facts, he continued, should
open the eyes of the electors and of all German
princes and show them the necessity of opposing without delay
attempts to subject them to Spanish domination. Consequently, on Ferdinand
the Third's death, the electors resolved to shake themselves free
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from the influence of the House of Habsburg. Leopolt, son
of Ferdinand, had already been proclaimed king of Hungary, and
it was necessary to combat his pretensions to the imperial throne.
Mazarren even ordered Borchteaux to urge Cromwell to assist him
in his policy, and pointed out that Leopold had ratified
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his father's engagements to support Kasimir the Roman Catholic King
of Poland against Charles the tenth, King of Sweden and
England's ally not content with attempting to stir up England
and Sweden to oppose the candidature of Leopoult. Mazarin, accompanied
by Louis the fourteenth, spent the months of September and
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October sixteen fifty seven at Mess engaged in negotiations with
the electors. Already, the German princes had shown that they
did not consider that the welfare and independence of the
secondary states in Germany were sufficiently guaranteed by the Peace
of Westphalia. In sixteen fifty one, the three ecclesiastical electors,
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together with the Elector of Bavaria, the Bishop of Munstone,
the Count Palatine, and the Dukes of Neuberg and Juliet,
had formed a League of the Rhine for the defense
of their common interests. On their side, the Protestant princes
had also formed a league which included the King of Sweden,
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the Dukes of Brunswick, Limburg, zel Wolfenbuttel and Hanover, and
the Langrave of Hessecassel. Thus, Germany was prepared for the
diplomatic overtures of Mazarin and ready to take steps to
maintain the peace of Westphalia. Though suffering from gout, Mazarin
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showed the greatest activity. He carried on numerous sets of negotiations,
and at the same time instructed Louis the fourteenth in
the political condition of Europe and explained to him the
character of the interests of the various powers. Never had
met Azahon's diplomacy been more active. Never during his ministry
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had his hopes seemed more sure of fulfillment than at
the close of sixteen fifty seven, Monmdi, Saint Venand and
Mardyke had been taken from Spain. The English were co
operating with their French allies in capturing the maritime towns
of Flanders. The Spanish influence at Vienna was destroyed. It
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remained for him to check permanently the power of the Emperor, and,
with the aid of England, finally to crush Spain. The
first of these tasks was accomplished in August sixteen fifty eight,
when Leon successfully united the two German leagues in the
League of the Rhine. Under the auspices of France. Mazaron
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had hoped to secure the election of a prince who
did not belong to the Habsburg house. The Duke of Neubuch,
the Elector of Bavaria, and even Louis the fourteenth seemed
to have suggested themselves to his mind at different times.
The Duke of Neubuch, however, did not prove a popular candidate,
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and the Elector of Bavaria was a weak prince devoted
to the Habsburgs. Gradually it became clear to Mazarin that
the influence of tradition and an expectation of future favors
by the electors tended to favor the choice of Leopold.
Mazarron had little difficulty in changing his front. He declared
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that Louis the fourteenth had never aspired to the empire,
and he devoted his energies to so limiting the power
of the new emperor that he would be unable to
help the Spaniards in their war against France. On July eighteen, Leopold,
having accepted certain conditions imposed upon him by the electors,
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was elected Emperor. He swore to observe scrupulously the conditions
of the Peace of Westphalia and not to interfere in
the war between France and Spain. Before However, the League
of the Rhine was formed, the young and warlike King
of Sweden proposed to plunge into a war with the Emperor.
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Such a course of action, leading to general confusion in
Germany and probably to French intervention, would have been conducive
to the advantage of Spain and fatal to Mazarin's plans
for narrowing down the struggle into one between Spain on
the one hand, and England and France on the other.
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The best means to defeat this project was to make
a league between the German princes for the preservation of
their independence. Charles the tenth yielded to the pacific advice
of Mazarin, and on August fourteenth, sixteen fifty eight was
formed the League of the Rhine, which was joined by
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the King of Sweden, six of the Electors, and other
German princes. On the next day, Louis the fourteenth joined
the league, engaging with the other members to defend the
settlement of the Peace of Westphalia. The signatories agreed to force,
if necessary, the Emperor to carry out the promises made
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at his election. Mazarel had won a fresh diplomatic victory,
and after events fully justified his efforts and the vast
sums expended in bribery. According to Masorel, he temporarily ruined
himself in buying the smaller German princes. For many years, however,
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French influence was preponderant in Germany, and Louis the Fourteenth's
position in Europe was largely due to Mazarin's formation of
the League of the Rhine. In uniting the German Protestant
and Roman Catholic princes of Germany in the League of
the Rhine, Mazarin had successfully affirmed the principles of toleration
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which he himself held and which had been proclaimed in
the Peace of Westphalia. He had to place the Empire
under a further obligation to France. By saving it from
the war which the kings of Sweden and Spain wished
to stir up within it. He had carried out the
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policy of Richelia toward Germany, and by his prudence and moderation,
had gained for France the gratitude of the German people.
It was not till Louis the fourteenth allowed himself to
be carried away by overweening ambition and to attack Germany
by his Chambers of Reunion that the Empire united with
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the Emperor in resisting, a policy which ran directly counter
to that adopted by Richelieu and Mazarin. During Mazarin's successful
diplomacy in Germany, a fresh blow was being struck at
the Spanish Bourbon. On March twenty eighth, sixteen fifty eight,
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a new treaty had been signed with Cromwell, and it
was again distinctly laid down that the allied French and
English forces were to combine for the conquest of Gravelin
and Dunkirk. The campaign opened badly for France. Aidin, through treachery,
fell into the hands of the Spaniards in owing to
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his rashness and imprudence, the martial Doument was defeated in
an attempt to seize Ostend, and was himself taken prisoner. Mazarin, however,
was by no means discouraged with the King and Anne
of Austria. He proceeded to Calais and pressed on the
preparations for the siege of Dunkirk. The difficulties were immense.
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The Spaniards held bag fiun, nusport and groveling, and were
resolved to defend Dunkirk to the last. At the end
of May, the court moved to Mardyke so as to
be nearer to the scene of operations, and Louis the
fourteenth interested himself in providing for the welfare of the soldiers.
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On June fourteenth, the allied forces won the Battle of
the Dunes, and on the twenty third Instant Dunkirk capitulated
and was handed over to the English. Though Spain had
suffered a severe disaster, Mazarin was violently attacked for carrying
out the treaty with England and surrendering Dunkirk. In vain
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did Mazarin point out that had England and Spain united,
the French cause would have seriously suffered, and that the
alliance of Louis the fourteenth with Sweden and Holland had
proved insufficient for the overthrow of the Habsburgs. Public opinion, however,
moderated itself before the succession of victories gained by Turin.
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That master of the art of warfare had seized big
Fune and Dixmude in July, and in August twenty seventh,
Gavelin capitulated. In the meantime, Louis the fourteenth had fallen
so seriously ill at Mardike that his life was despaired of,
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and cabals were formed for the overthrow of Mazarin. The Cardinal, however,
was well informed as to the existence and character of
the plots and exiled the conspirators. The king recovered, but
on September third, Oliver Cromwell died. He had proved an
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invaluable friend of France, and England had gained enormously from
the war with Spain. The alliances between the two countries
continued during Richard Cromwell's government, and the new Protector, in
view of the numerous factions which existed in England, had
every reason to adhere to the treaty with France. Meanwhile,
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the autumn brought fresh triumphs to the government of Louis
the fourteenth. On September ninth, Turin had invaded Flanders and
taken Udnard, leaving Don John of Austria in Brussels and
Conde in Tournay. Turin retired to the lease and occupied
men In and Eype. The Chateau of Comene on the
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lease next fell, and Turin occupied himself in fortifying the
conquered places. The year sixteen fifty eight had proved disastrous
to Spain. She had been defeated in Flanders by the
French and in the province of Alentejo by the Portuguese.
Her position in the Milanese was threatened, and the English
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overcame her fleets at sea. Peace was absolutely necessary, but
the pride of Philip the fourth stood in the way
of any settlement. To force the Spanish king to come
to terms, and to induce him to consent to the
marriage of the Infanta and Louis the fourteenth, Mazarin had
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recourse to an artifice. He made formal proposals for the
marriage of Margaret of Sauvois with the young king, and
with the court, proceeded in October sixteen fifty eight to
Leon in order to meet the Duchess of Savoy and
her daughter. The success of his plans was, however, for
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a time endangered by the infatuation of Louis. For Maria Mancini,
one of Mazarin's nieces and of Ostiria, who had set
her heart on the Spanish match, was in despair. The
event bore high testimony to Mazarin's foresight, firmness, and diplomatic skill.
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On November twenty eighth, sixteen fifty eight, the Duchess of
Savois and her daughter arrived at Leon, and almost simultaneously
Antonio Pimentelli, a Spanish envoy, brought proposals of peace and
the offer of the hand of the Infanta. On December eighth,
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the Savoyard princesses left Lyon, and shortly afterward serious negotiations
with Spain began. On no previous occasion were Mazarin's diplomatic
talents more necessary. Philip the fourth and its ministers still
hoped that fortune would declare itself on the side of Spain,
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and had a vague belief that the Emperor Leopold would
break the peace of Westphalia and the promises made on
his election, and come to the assistance of the Spanish Bourbon,
having acquainted Richard Cromwell and the French allies in Germany.
Of the Spanish proposals, conferences were opened near Paris early
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and sixteen fifty nine. In May, a suspension of arms
was arranged. During the greater part of the year, negotiations proceeded. Meanwhile,
Louis the Fourteenth's attachment for Maria Manchini had increased, and
it was only by the exercise of patience and firmness
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that Mazarin secured obedience to his wishes. After the middle
of August, louis passion for Maria subsided, and he turned
his attention to the peace negotiations. Peace was indeed the
sincere wish of Mazarin. The war with Spain had lasted
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since sixteen thirty five and had wrought havoc in the
northeast of France. The country had been cruelly devastated. Churches
without number had been destroyed in sixteen fifty seven and
sixteen fifty eight. Famine and flood had added a new
horror to the calamities of war. Toois, Charleon, France and
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many other places suffered from inundations, and the send in
February sixteen fifty eight was full of wreckage. Vassuet, preaching
at mess in sixteen fifty eight, gave eloquent expression to
the desire for peace, which was shared with Mazarin by
all classes in France. On June fourth, sixteen fifty nine,
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a treaty was signed. The principal terms of the final
arrangements between France and Spain were arranged, and it was
decided that the many questions which required adjustment and settlement
should be discussed on the Isle of Pheasants, situated in
the River Bidasoa, between Masarin and Don Luis d'ajuro. At
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these conferences, which took place between August and November, appeared
envoys from England, Rome, Sweden, Germany, Savois, Modena and Lorraine.
Masarn had, moreover, to listen to complaints from the envoys
of the King of Sweden and of the Electors of
Mainz and Cologne against the Emperor Leopold, who, in consequence
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of the Northern War, had sent troops into Pomerania. An
additional reason was thus forced upon Masarn for the immediate
conclusion of peace, in order to enable him to deal
with the complicated affairs of Northern Europe, where Charles the
tenth was pursuing his meteoric career, and to compel the
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Emperor to respect the Peace of Westphalia and the terms
of the capitulation which he had agreed to on his accession.
On November seventh, sixteen fifty nine, the Peace of the
Pyrenees was signed and a fitting end was brought to
Mazarin's efforts. By this piece, France obtained Roussillon contflant Artois,
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except Air and Saint Omer and portions of Luxembourg, Ano
and Flanders. France was confirmed in her possession of Alsace,
retained p Narolo, and though on certain terms, the Duke
of Lorraine was to be reinstated in his dominions, the
fortifications of Nancy were to be destroyed, and Louis the
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fourteenth secured the Duchy of Barr, the County of Clermont,
steinnet dnt, Jemesse and moien Vique. An easy entry for
French armies in the future into Lorraine, Flanders, Aino and
Luxemburg was thus assured. Great difficulty was experienced with regard
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to Conde. The Spanish minister had asked that the prince
should be restored to his former governments, but Mazarin firmly
refused to give any indulgence to a traitor and to
permit Conde to enjoy a position in which he could
again be a menace to the monarchy. Eventually, it was
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settled that on condition number one that Spain seeded aven
and gave Juliet to the Duke of Neubourg, one of
the allies of France, and two that Conde asked pardon
of the King of France, he should receive his private
estate and be made governor of Burgundy and bress. To
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these terms, Conde agreed and became one of Louis's most
submissive courtiers. Portugal was not included in the treaty, though
France obtained an amnesty for the Catalans and Neopolitans who
had sided with her. Though the Treaty of June fourth
had provided for the marriage of Louis the fourteenth with
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the Enfanta, the terms of the arrangement were again fully discussed,
Don Luis Dejarro insisting that the princess should renounce her
rights to the Spanish succession. Eventually, Mazarin agreed to the
renunciation on condition that she received a dowry of five
hundred thousand crowns, payable in three years. The articles of
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the marriage treaty were so drawn by Leon that if
the money were not paid within the allotted time, the
renunciation became nullen void. The affairs of England were also discussed,
and Charles the Second, who was present, endeavored to secure
the aid of France and Spain, in effecting his restoration.
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Both Mazarin and Don Louis Pese were in favor of
the Stuart restoration, but Mazaron refused to take any part
in the war between England and Spain or to espouse
the cause of Charles. The Second Peace was now made
and France had established her superiority over Spain. The great
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work of Mazaron was finished, and the policy of Henry
the Fourth and Richelieu was justified. Turin Fouquet and others, however,
were dissatisfied with the conclusion of peace, and were of
opinion that the continuance of the war would have been
advantageous to France. It was urged that Spain was so
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weakened that the conquest of the whole of the Spanish
Netherlands could easily have been affected, and the Spanish monarchy dismembered. Mazaron, however,
was right in concluding peace. France was exhausted, her finances
in confusion, her people anxious for the end of hostile stilities. England,
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distracted by internal troubles, was no longer an effective ally,
and had France persevered in her attempts to secure the
Spanish Netherlands, she would probably have brought upon herself the
active opposition of Holland and the Emperor. Mazarent too was
anxious to bring French influence to bear upon the combatants
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in the Baltic and to end the Northern War. It
was also necessary to examine more closely into the condition
of the finances and into Fouquet's administration. One of the
articles in the Treaty of the Pyrenees had contemplated the
intervention of France or Spain as mediators in the Northern War.
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Don Luis de Harro, however, showed no inclination to take
any part in the work of mediation, and it was
left to Mazarin to re establish peace in the Baltic.
France was indeed deeply interested in the work of pacification.
Several of the allies of Louis the fourteenth were engaged
in the war, and the Emperor had already taken part
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and violated the Treaty of Westphalia. Servian strongly urged that
help should be given to Sweden, the ancient ally of
France and a valuable counterpoise to the power of the
Emperor in Germany. The Northern War had begun in sixteen
fifty five, by the invasion of Poland by Charles the
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Tenth of Sweden. John Casimir, King of Poland, who had
married Marie de Gonzagnavere of French Princess, lost the greater
part of his kingdom and Warsaw fell. Disregarding Mazarin's councils
of prudence and moderation, Charles the Tenth attacked and made
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an enemy of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. While the Poles,
take making advantage of this diversion, drove the Swedes out
of their territory. Charles at once threw himself on Poland,
and after the famous three days Battle of Warsaw July
twenty eighth, twenty ninth and thirtieth sixteen fifty six, again
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conquered the country. Alarmed at the rapid success of Sweden,
a coalition including Russia, Poland, Brondenburg and Denmark was formed.
In sixteen fifty seven. Leopold of Austria, then King of Hungary,
also allied himself with Poland and sent troops, while Holland
was prepared to oppose the conversion of the Baltic into
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a Swedish lake. Menaced by this formidable league, Charles attacked
Denmark and besieged Copenhagen. Unable to offer any adequate resistance,
the Danes willingly accepted the mediation of France and England,
and on February twenty eighth, sixteen fifty eight, made the
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Treaty of Roskilt, by which Sweden secured several provinces. War
again broke out in the summer between Denmark and Sweden,
and in August Copenhagen was a second time besieged. The
projects of Charles the Tenth included the annexation of Denmark
and Norway to Sweden and the occupation of Kurland, Pilau
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and Donsig. He would thus dominate the Baltic and rule
over a powerful northern empire. Holland at once took alarm,
defeated the Swedish fleet and raised the siege of Copenhagen,
while a new coalition was formed including Russia, Poland, Brandenburg,
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Denmark and Holland. The Emperor Leopolt encouraged the allies and
sent them reinforcements. Such was the situation in the North
during the summer of sixteen fifty eight. Charles the Tenth
had ignored his allies and his rashness had tended to
alienate both France and England, but Oliver Cromwell was always
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guided in his policy to Sweden by the conviction that
the Roman Catholic governments had entered into a conspiracy against
all Protestant states. He was also keenly alive to the
importance of safeguarding English trade. Consequently, Cromwell was easily convinced
by Mazarin of the necessity of preserving the balance of
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power in the Baltic. Mazarin definitely proposed that France and
England should unite to bring about peace between Sweden and Denmark,
and between Sweden and the rest of the coalition. Cromwell
at once sent a fleet into the Baltic to oppose
Dutch attempts at aggrandizement. Unable to resist France and England,
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Holland joined them in urging peace upon on Sweden and Denmark.
During sixteen fifty nine, Mazarin never ceased his pacific endeavors,
and almost simultaneously with the meeting of Mazarin and Don
Luis de Haro, a peace conference was opened at Oliva
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under the presidency of Antoine de l'ombre. The French ambassador
in Poland. The proceedings were carried on slowly. The King
of Sweden was ungrateful for the help given him by
England and France, and obstinately refused to relinquish his schemes,
while the Emperor was secretly doing all in his power
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to prolong the struggle and to drive the Swedes from
their possessions. In Germany, Imperial troops besieged Stetide, though in
doing so they acted contrary to the terms of the
Peace of Westphalia. No sooner was the Peace of the
Pyrenees signed than Mazarin interfered energetically on the hand half
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of Sweden. Various circumstances enabled him to bring matters to
a successful issue. Spain refused to give any assistance to
the Emperor, and the members of the League of the
Rhine were stirred up by de Gravelle, the French envoy,
to protest against the Emperor's attack on the King of Sweden, who,
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as Duke of Bremen and Verden, was a member of
the Confederation. Mazarin himself declared that if the Emperor's attacks
on Pomerania were continued, France would send her armies to
the assistance of Charles the Tenth. It is impossible to
assert that Mazarin's efforts to bring about peace could have
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proved successful had not Charles the Tenth died in sixteen sixty. Obstinate, ambitious,
and full of wild schemes of conquest, Charles the Tenth
had nothing in common with Mazarin, whose advice he usually
treated with contempt. His death at this crisis facilitated the
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conclusion of peace. The negotiations at Oliva were complicated by
the fact that the Queen of Poland was a French
princess who complained of the partiality shown by Mazarin for Sweden.
Both Sweden and Poland were the traditional allies of France,
and it was a difficult matter to arrange a satisfactory settlement.
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Mazarin's skill proved, however, adequate for the task, and on
May third, sixteen sixty, the Treaty of Oliva was signed.
John Casimir renounced all claim to the Swedish throne. Livonia
was divided between Sweden and Poland, and the latter state
received back Courland, Polish Prussia and all towns in Pomerania,
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lately occupied by the troops of the Elector of Brandenburg
and the Emperor. The peace secured the independence of Prussia
under the Great, whose power was thereby greatly strengthened. On
June sixth, sixteen sixty, the Treaty of Copenhagen between Sweden
and Denmark was concluded under the mediation of France, England
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and Holland. Sweden gave up her recent conquests, but kept
the provinces of halland Blekinge and Scania. Mazarin's diplomacy had
again been successfully asserted, while Sweden the ally of France,
still preserved her superiority in the Baltic Denmark, Poland and
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Brandenburg had accepted the mediation of the government of Louis
the fourteen. The pacification of the North did infinite credit
to the patience, perseverance and sagacity of the Cardinal. The
same year that saw the conclusion of the Peace of
Oliva witnessed the departure of a French expedition to aid
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made Venice in her war against Turkey and to repress
piracy in the Barbary States. The French ambassador at Constantinople
had been insulted by the Turks in sixteen fifty eight
and without declaring war upon the port. Mazaron decided to
avenge the insult by aiding the Venetians in their defense
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of Condia. The expedition proved a failure, and it was
not till a few years later that French troops accomplished
the end aimed at by Mazarin by aiding the imperialists
to defeat the Turks in the Battle of Saint Gotland.
Mazaron's last negotiations were successfully carried out and proved beneficial
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to France by a treaty signed on December sixteenth, sixteen
sixty Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria, on condition of receiving
a large sum of money, renounced all pretensions to Alo
sass and the Sundgau of which Altkirch was the capital,
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and it was at the same time settled that the
County of Firet should also be ceded to France. Mazarin
succeeded in carrying out the stipulations of a clause in
the Peace of Westphalia of the greatest interest and importance
to France. On February twenty eighth, sixteen sixty one, a
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few days before his death, Mazarin concluded a treaty with
Charles four, the Duke of Lorraine. The terms settled in
the Peace of the Pyrenees were modified, and Charles the
fourth was re established in this duchy, though in close
dependence upon France. While engaged on these negotiations with the
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Northern Powers, with Turkey, with the Archduke Ferdinand, Charles, and
with the Duke of Lorraine, Mazarin had also been occupied
in the south of France. There the court remained all
through the winter of sixteen fifty nine and sixty, and
during its sojourn at Toulouse, several interesting events occurred. Mazarin
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secured for himself from the Duke of Mantua the Duchy
of Navere, and at the same time gave the Count
of Arcour the province of Anjou in place of the
government of Alsace, which he kept in his own hands.
He also endeavored to deal with the finances of the kingdom. Fouquet,
the Superintendent had been denounced by Colbert and by VARs,
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who had examined the accounts. Since Servian's death in February
of sixteen fifty nine. Fouquet's schemes had been unchecked. He
spent immense sums upon the building of his chateau of
Vaulee Vicomte. He employed spies to report to him the
words of Mazarin and the king. He evidently wished to
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become the first minute. The purchase and fortification of Belliel
seemed to presage a struggle between the magnificent Fouquet and
the royal power. Fouquet's influence was undoubtedly considerable. Procureur general
as well as superintendent of the finances, Fouquet had not
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only amassed a large fortune, but had obtained for his
relations and friends high positions in the church, the army,
and the court. Liberal to extravagance. A patron of men
of letters and artists, Fouquet had numerous friends and positions
of trust. His power, wealth and influence made him a
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dangerous man, and there is little doubt that he was
prepared of necessary to stir up civil war. He had
been useful during the years of stress, but he belonged
to an order of things that was passing away. He
had nothing in common with the views and position of
such men as LeTellier, Serbian and Colbert. The future was
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with middle class officialdom, with bureaucracy, and with centralization, Fouquet
wished to be the mayor of the Palace. Masarn was
well aware of the advisability of ridding the government of Fouquet.
In a memoir drawn up in October of sixteen fifty nine,
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Colbert had painted Fouquet's faulty methods in the blackest colors
and had suggested sweeping reforms. But the principal obstacle to
drastic financial reforms lay in the danger of shaking the
credit of the government. The fall of Fouquet would increase
the difficulty of obtaining money. This consideration may have decided
(37:52):
Mazarin not to attack Fouquet at any rate. He had
several interviews with the Superintendent and remained dow on good
terms with him till his own death. It was left
to Louis the fourteenth to carry out the suggestions of
Colbert and to overthrow Fouquet and his system. Monsieur Cheruel,
(38:13):
in his work on Mazarron's ministry, says that Nicola Fouquet
was with his brother the evil genius of Mazarin, and
blames the cardinal for not acting energetically upon Colbert's advice.
During the winter and spring of sixteen sixty, the court
remained in the south of France. The Fronte had been
(38:35):
strongly supported in some of the southern districts, and the
Duke of Mercur, who had succeeded the Count of a
Lais as governor of Provence, had been compelled to use
force in order to quell the sedition at Toulouse. Mazarin
hoped that the presence of the king would allay all
discontent and promote a feeling of loyalty. He was also
(38:57):
anxious to improve the condition of the navy in the Mediterranean,
and with that object visited in company with Louis the
fourteenth the important town of Toulon at x in Provence.
Louis had received the submission of CORONDEI, and on February third,
the ratification of the Treaty of the Pyrenees. Later in
(39:20):
the month, he and the cardinals stayed at Toulon, and
on March second he entered Marseilles. As in the case
of Toulouse, Mercuriur had been compelled to have recourse to
arms before he could secure the submission of the citizens.
An expedition was about the same time sent to compel
the governor of the town of Range, which belonged to
(39:43):
the House of Range Nassau, to recognize the SUZERAINTI of
the King of France and to open its gates to
his representative from Marseilles. The court proceeded to Auvignan, Montpellier,
and finally to Sainte Jean Delous, where in June the
marriage of Louis and the Infanta was celebrated for the
(40:07):
first time for many years. Anne of Austria and her
brother Philip the fourth of Spain met on the isle
of Pheasants, and two days later, on June sixth, the
two kings had an interview. Louis the fourteen with his
queen and court, then returned to Fontainebleau, arriving on July thirteen.
(40:29):
The state entry into Paris was not made till August
twenty six, and was the occasion of great rejoicings. In
the procession, Mazeron's suite was equal to the royal household
in magnificence. First came seventy two baggage mules, divided into
three troops, and each troop adorned with embroidered silk and tapestry.
(40:53):
The last troop clothed with coverings of scarlet velvet, on
which were blazoned the Cardinal's arms. Then followed twenty four
pages in rich liveries, and on horseback, led by Mazarin's equerries,
the Sieur Fontenelle and Moreaux. Next came twelve Spanish genets,
eccutered in crimson embroidered velvet, and each led by two grooms.
(41:18):
To these succeeded his carriages, seven in number, each drawn
by six horses. The Cardinal's private carriage was completely covered
with goldsmith's work in silver guilt, and was surrounded by
forty running footmen richly dressed, behind whom marched the sur
de besmo of Mazarin's bodyguard. Mazarin with Turin, viewed the
(41:43):
procession from a balcony, being too ill himself to take
part in it. English affairs were during these celebrations, engaging
his attention and demanded the exercise of all his diplomatic skill. Before, however,
the court had returned to Fontainebleau, the restoration had taken
(42:04):
place in England, and it seemed likely to be followed
by a breach of the Angle French alliance. For some months,
Mazaron had been occupied with the consideration of the political
situation in England, what was the true policy for France
to adopt. During the latter days of the weak rule
(42:24):
of Richard Cromwell. The Treaty of Paris made by Mazalon
with Oliver Cromwell had proved invaluable, but in accordance with
the demands of the Protector. Charles the Second had been
forced to retire from France, while his mother, Henrietta Maria
remained and had become a persona grata at the French court.
(42:46):
While she looked forward to returning to England and to
directing the policy of the restored monarchy, Charles the Second
hied and the rest of his exiled friends had bitter
feelings with regard to their treatment by the French government.
In the early months of sixteen sixty, during his journeys
through Langdok and Provence, Mazarin was compelled to watch very
(43:10):
carefully the various revolutionary phases through which England was passing
and to decide on the policy which France should adopt.
A monarchical restoration in England was the ardent wish of
both Louis the fourteenth and his court, but any overt
action in favor of Charles the Second, would rally all
(43:31):
the anti monarchical sections in England and ruin Charles the
Second's prospects. At the same time, Mazaron wished, in view
of the possibility of a restoration, to stand well with
Charles and in some measure to remove the feelings of
hostility which that prince felt toward France as the ally
of the Commonwealth. It was quite evident to Mazarin that
(43:55):
the continuance of anarchy and England would discuss all lovers
of order and contribute to a restoration. It was equally
evident that the interests of Charles the Second would be
best served by inaction on the part of France. Mazaron
recognized that Monk held the key of the position. While
(44:16):
that general was deciding on his future action, Mazaron sent
secretly to Charles the Second, who was then in Brussels,
one hundred thousand crowns and a promise of aid from
France toward his restoration. The gravity of this blunder was
at once apparent. Charles was doubtless shadowed by spies, but
(44:38):
Monsieur Cherul charges Hide and Ormond with having divulged Mazarin's intentions.
In any case, Charles the Second's cause was for the
time weakened, and general resentment prevailed in England at the
notion of receiving a king through the agency of France.
To destroy the evil effects of the publication of mass
(45:00):
Torand's somewhat indiscreet action, Monk and the supporters of a
restoration decided that Charles the Second should reside in a
country not dependent upon either France or Spain. Consequently, the
prince proceeded to Breda, and on May eighth, sixteen sixty,
was offered the English crown by the Parliament. For some
(45:24):
months after the restoration, France and England rifted apart, friction
being caused partly by the continued residence in England of Baucdeaux,
who had been accredited to the Commonwealth, partly owing to
the intrigues of Henrietta Maria, who worked with the aid
of France to overthrow Hyde, the English chancellor, her declared enemy.
(45:46):
It was not until Boucdeaux had been recalled the triumph
of Hyde assured, and the marriage of the English Princess
Henrietta with Louis the fourteenths brother carried out in March
sixteen sixty one that all danger of hostilities was averted
from May twenty ninth, sixteen sixty the date of the restoration,
(46:08):
to the end of the year. Mazarin, among his other anxieties,
had to face the possibility of a rupture with England.
Charles the Second opened the ball by refusing to receive Borucdeaux,
whom he accused of favoring the Commonwealth and of attempting
to influence Monk against a restoration. In July, Bucdeaux left England,
(46:30):
and Charles, realizing that a war at that moment might
shake his throne, made secret overtures to Louis the fourteenth
and Mazarin, the latter, anxious to leave France at Peice,
accepted Charles's excuses, and the Count of Soisson was sent
with great ceremony to congratulate Charles on his accession. A
(46:51):
proposal that Charles should marry Ortensia Mancini was swept aside
by the cardinal, who thus a second time declined to
allow one of his nieces to marry a king. On
the contrary, he encouraged the project of a marriage between
Charles and Catherine of Braganza. By one of the articles
(47:12):
of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, France had engaged not
to aid Portugal in her struggle for independence against Spain,
either directly or indirectly. It was very doubtful if Portugal, unaided,
could hold her own against the Spanish armies, and in
bringing about a marriage between Charles the Second and Catherine
(47:33):
of Braganza, the French government was securing for Portugal a
valuable ally. Since sixteen sixty the relations between England and
Portugal had been almost uniformly friendly. It was not, however,
till sixteen sixty two, that the marriage took place. In
February sixteen sixty one, shortly before Mazarin's death, Henrietta, Charles
(47:59):
the UAE the second's sister, arrived in France for her
marriage with Philip, Duke of Anjou and later Duke of
or Leons. This marriage, which was celebrated on March thirty first,
had Mazarin's full approbation. It removed all causes of irritation
between England and France and led to a close alliance
(48:22):
between the two countries. Till William the Third's accession. France
gained enormously By this alliance. England never interfered seriously or
for any prolonged period, with the schemes of Louis the
fourteenth Dunkirk was recovered, and the wisdom which guided all
(48:44):
Mazarin's relations with England was again fully exemplified. End of
Chapter eight
Chapter eight of Mazarin by Arthur Hassel. This LibriVox recording
is in the public domain. Recording by Pamel and Agami
The League of the Rhine and the Peace of the
Pyrenees sixteen fifty eight to sixteen fifty nine. The Treaty
(00:22):
of Paris was not made a month too soon for
the campaign opened disastrously for France. The Spaniards captured Sanguia
in March, and in June cone De forced Turin to
abandon the siege of Cambre. But after these failures, success
attended the arms of the French and English. Don Juan
(00:44):
of Austria, who commanded the Spanish troops, was incapable. Mont
Medi capitulated to the French in August, and Turin not
only captured Savenon but compelled the Spaniards to raise the
siege of Meanwhile, Louis the fourteenth had reviewed the English
(01:05):
forces at Montrey, and after a siege of four days,
Mardike surrendered on October three to Turin, who handed it
over to his English allies. This success strengthened the good
relations existing between Mazarin and Cromwell, though the session of
Mardike to England called forth loud protestations from those who
(01:28):
disliked the English alliance. At the same time, complaints were
made in England that Dunkirk had not been captured. Mazarin
pointed out to Bordeaux that the English forces had arrived
late and that Spain had thrown reinforcements into Dunkirk, and
Gravelin he urged that more English troops should be sent
(01:52):
to defend Mardike from the attacks of the Spanish forces.
Till the following summer, the combined English and French armies
worked hard in strengthening their position preparatory to an onslaught
on Dunkirk. Meanwhile, Mazarin was busy at mess In conducting
some delicate negotiations. The Emperor, Ferdinand the Third, had died
(02:17):
on April first, sixteen fifty seven. In spite of the
terms of the Peace of Westphalia, he had constantly assisted
the Spaniards, and Mazarin had frequently protested against his violations
of the treaty. In August sixteen fifty six, Mazarin wrote
(02:38):
to de Gravelle, the French representative at Mice, that the
Emperor had not only supplied Spain with troops, but had
lately resolved to send into Italy some ten thousand men
to attack the Duke of Modena, the ally of France.
Mazarren further remarked that the emperor's conduct was due to
(02:59):
the influence of the Spaniards. In sixteen forty nine, Philip,
the fourth, King of Spain had married Maria Anne of Austria,
daughter of Ferdinand. In consequence of this marriage, said Mazarin,
the Spaniards think they are masters of the Imperial court
(03:20):
and therefore of all Germany. These facts, he continued, should
open the eyes of the electors and of all German
princes and show them the necessity of opposing without delay
attempts to subject them to Spanish domination. Consequently, on Ferdinand
the Third's death, the electors resolved to shake themselves free
(03:44):
from the influence of the House of Habsburg. Leopolt, son
of Ferdinand, had already been proclaimed king of Hungary, and
it was necessary to combat his pretensions to the imperial throne.
Mazarren even ordered Borchteaux to urge Cromwell to assist him
in his policy, and pointed out that Leopold had ratified
(04:07):
his father's engagements to support Kasimir the Roman Catholic King
of Poland against Charles the tenth, King of Sweden and
England's ally not content with attempting to stir up England
and Sweden to oppose the candidature of Leopoult. Mazarin, accompanied
by Louis the fourteenth, spent the months of September and
(04:30):
October sixteen fifty seven at Mess engaged in negotiations with
the electors. Already, the German princes had shown that they
did not consider that the welfare and independence of the
secondary states in Germany were sufficiently guaranteed by the Peace
of Westphalia. In sixteen fifty one, the three ecclesiastical electors,
(04:56):
together with the Elector of Bavaria, the Bishop of Munstone,
the Count Palatine, and the Dukes of Neuberg and Juliet,
had formed a League of the Rhine for the defense
of their common interests. On their side, the Protestant princes
had also formed a league which included the King of Sweden,
(05:18):
the Dukes of Brunswick, Limburg, zel Wolfenbuttel and Hanover, and
the Langrave of Hessecassel. Thus, Germany was prepared for the
diplomatic overtures of Mazarin and ready to take steps to
maintain the peace of Westphalia. Though suffering from gout, Mazarin
(05:41):
showed the greatest activity. He carried on numerous sets of negotiations,
and at the same time instructed Louis the fourteenth in
the political condition of Europe and explained to him the
character of the interests of the various powers. Never had
met Azahon's diplomacy been more active. Never during his ministry
(06:04):
had his hopes seemed more sure of fulfillment than at
the close of sixteen fifty seven, Monmdi, Saint Venand and
Mardyke had been taken from Spain. The English were co
operating with their French allies in capturing the maritime towns
of Flanders. The Spanish influence at Vienna was destroyed. It
(06:27):
remained for him to check permanently the power of the Emperor, and,
with the aid of England, finally to crush Spain. The
first of these tasks was accomplished in August sixteen fifty eight,
when Leon successfully united the two German leagues in the
League of the Rhine. Under the auspices of France. Mazaron
(06:53):
had hoped to secure the election of a prince who
did not belong to the Habsburg house. The Duke of Neubuch,
the Elector of Bavaria, and even Louis the fourteenth seemed
to have suggested themselves to his mind at different times.
The Duke of Neubuch, however, did not prove a popular candidate,
(07:15):
and the Elector of Bavaria was a weak prince devoted
to the Habsburgs. Gradually it became clear to Mazarin that
the influence of tradition and an expectation of future favors
by the electors tended to favor the choice of Leopold.
Mazarron had little difficulty in changing his front. He declared
(07:37):
that Louis the fourteenth had never aspired to the empire,
and he devoted his energies to so limiting the power
of the new emperor that he would be unable to
help the Spaniards in their war against France. On July eighteen, Leopold,
having accepted certain conditions imposed upon him by the electors,
(07:59):
was elected Emperor. He swore to observe scrupulously the conditions
of the Peace of Westphalia and not to interfere in
the war between France and Spain. Before However, the League
of the Rhine was formed, the young and warlike King
of Sweden proposed to plunge into a war with the Emperor.
(08:22):
Such a course of action, leading to general confusion in
Germany and probably to French intervention, would have been conducive
to the advantage of Spain and fatal to Mazarin's plans
for narrowing down the struggle into one between Spain on
the one hand, and England and France on the other.
(08:42):
The best means to defeat this project was to make
a league between the German princes for the preservation of
their independence. Charles the tenth yielded to the pacific advice
of Mazarin, and on August fourteenth, sixteen fifty eight was
formed the League of the Rhine, which was joined by
(09:04):
the King of Sweden, six of the Electors, and other
German princes. On the next day, Louis the fourteenth joined
the league, engaging with the other members to defend the
settlement of the Peace of Westphalia. The signatories agreed to force,
if necessary, the Emperor to carry out the promises made
(09:26):
at his election. Mazarel had won a fresh diplomatic victory,
and after events fully justified his efforts and the vast
sums expended in bribery. According to Masorel, he temporarily ruined
himself in buying the smaller German princes. For many years, however,
(09:49):
French influence was preponderant in Germany, and Louis the Fourteenth's
position in Europe was largely due to Mazarin's formation of
the League of the Rhine. In uniting the German Protestant
and Roman Catholic princes of Germany in the League of
the Rhine, Mazarin had successfully affirmed the principles of toleration
(10:13):
which he himself held and which had been proclaimed in
the Peace of Westphalia. He had to place the Empire
under a further obligation to France. By saving it from
the war which the kings of Sweden and Spain wished
to stir up within it. He had carried out the
(10:34):
policy of Richelia toward Germany, and by his prudence and moderation,
had gained for France the gratitude of the German people.
It was not till Louis the fourteenth allowed himself to
be carried away by overweening ambition and to attack Germany
by his Chambers of Reunion that the Empire united with
(10:57):
the Emperor in resisting, a policy which ran directly counter
to that adopted by Richelieu and Mazarin. During Mazarin's successful
diplomacy in Germany, a fresh blow was being struck at
the Spanish Bourbon. On March twenty eighth, sixteen fifty eight,
(11:19):
a new treaty had been signed with Cromwell, and it
was again distinctly laid down that the allied French and
English forces were to combine for the conquest of Gravelin
and Dunkirk. The campaign opened badly for France. Aidin, through treachery,
fell into the hands of the Spaniards in owing to
(11:42):
his rashness and imprudence, the martial Doument was defeated in
an attempt to seize Ostend, and was himself taken prisoner. Mazarin, however,
was by no means discouraged with the King and Anne
of Austria. He proceeded to Calais and pressed on the
preparations for the siege of Dunkirk. The difficulties were immense.
(12:07):
The Spaniards held bag fiun, nusport and groveling, and were
resolved to defend Dunkirk to the last. At the end
of May, the court moved to Mardyke so as to
be nearer to the scene of operations, and Louis the
fourteenth interested himself in providing for the welfare of the soldiers.
(12:28):
On June fourteenth, the allied forces won the Battle of
the Dunes, and on the twenty third Instant Dunkirk capitulated
and was handed over to the English. Though Spain had
suffered a severe disaster, Mazarin was violently attacked for carrying
out the treaty with England and surrendering Dunkirk. In vain
(12:50):
did Mazarin point out that had England and Spain united,
the French cause would have seriously suffered, and that the
alliance of Louis the fourteenth with Sweden and Holland had
proved insufficient for the overthrow of the Habsburgs. Public opinion, however,
moderated itself before the succession of victories gained by Turin.
(13:16):
That master of the art of warfare had seized big
Fune and Dixmude in July, and in August twenty seventh,
Gavelin capitulated. In the meantime, Louis the fourteenth had fallen
so seriously ill at Mardike that his life was despaired of,
(13:36):
and cabals were formed for the overthrow of Mazarin. The Cardinal, however,
was well informed as to the existence and character of
the plots and exiled the conspirators. The king recovered, but
on September third, Oliver Cromwell died. He had proved an
(13:58):
invaluable friend of France, and England had gained enormously from
the war with Spain. The alliances between the two countries
continued during Richard Cromwell's government, and the new Protector, in
view of the numerous factions which existed in England, had
every reason to adhere to the treaty with France. Meanwhile,
(14:21):
the autumn brought fresh triumphs to the government of Louis
the fourteenth. On September ninth, Turin had invaded Flanders and
taken Udnard, leaving Don John of Austria in Brussels and
Conde in Tournay. Turin retired to the lease and occupied
men In and Eype. The Chateau of Comene on the
(14:45):
lease next fell, and Turin occupied himself in fortifying the
conquered places. The year sixteen fifty eight had proved disastrous
to Spain. She had been defeated in Flanders by the
French and in the province of Alentejo by the Portuguese.
Her position in the Milanese was threatened, and the English
(15:09):
overcame her fleets at sea. Peace was absolutely necessary, but
the pride of Philip the fourth stood in the way
of any settlement. To force the Spanish king to come
to terms, and to induce him to consent to the
marriage of the Infanta and Louis the fourteenth, Mazarin had
(15:30):
recourse to an artifice. He made formal proposals for the
marriage of Margaret of Sauvois with the young king, and
with the court, proceeded in October sixteen fifty eight to
Leon in order to meet the Duchess of Savoy and
her daughter. The success of his plans was, however, for
(15:50):
a time endangered by the infatuation of Louis. For Maria Mancini,
one of Mazarin's nieces and of Ostiria, who had set
her heart on the Spanish match, was in despair. The
event bore high testimony to Mazarin's foresight, firmness, and diplomatic skill.
(16:12):
On November twenty eighth, sixteen fifty eight, the Duchess of
Savois and her daughter arrived at Leon, and almost simultaneously
Antonio Pimentelli, a Spanish envoy, brought proposals of peace and
the offer of the hand of the Infanta. On December eighth,
(16:34):
the Savoyard princesses left Lyon, and shortly afterward serious negotiations
with Spain began. On no previous occasion were Mazarin's diplomatic
talents more necessary. Philip the fourth and its ministers still
hoped that fortune would declare itself on the side of Spain,
(16:57):
and had a vague belief that the Emperor Leopold would
break the peace of Westphalia and the promises made on
his election, and come to the assistance of the Spanish Bourbon,
having acquainted Richard Cromwell and the French allies in Germany.
Of the Spanish proposals, conferences were opened near Paris early
(17:20):
and sixteen fifty nine. In May, a suspension of arms
was arranged. During the greater part of the year, negotiations proceeded. Meanwhile,
Louis the Fourteenth's attachment for Maria Manchini had increased, and
it was only by the exercise of patience and firmness
(17:41):
that Mazarin secured obedience to his wishes. After the middle
of August, louis passion for Maria subsided, and he turned
his attention to the peace negotiations. Peace was indeed the
sincere wish of Mazarin. The war with Spain had lasted
(18:02):
since sixteen thirty five and had wrought havoc in the
northeast of France. The country had been cruelly devastated. Churches
without number had been destroyed in sixteen fifty seven and
sixteen fifty eight. Famine and flood had added a new
horror to the calamities of war. Toois, Charleon, France and
(18:26):
many other places suffered from inundations, and the send in
February sixteen fifty eight was full of wreckage. Vassuet, preaching
at mess in sixteen fifty eight, gave eloquent expression to
the desire for peace, which was shared with Mazarin by
all classes in France. On June fourth, sixteen fifty nine,
(18:51):
a treaty was signed. The principal terms of the final
arrangements between France and Spain were arranged, and it was
decided that the many questions which required adjustment and settlement
should be discussed on the Isle of Pheasants, situated in
the River Bidasoa, between Masarin and Don Luis d'ajuro. At
(19:14):
these conferences, which took place between August and November, appeared
envoys from England, Rome, Sweden, Germany, Savois, Modena and Lorraine.
Masarn had, moreover, to listen to complaints from the envoys
of the King of Sweden and of the Electors of
Mainz and Cologne against the Emperor Leopold, who, in consequence
(19:38):
of the Northern War, had sent troops into Pomerania. An
additional reason was thus forced upon Masarn for the immediate
conclusion of peace, in order to enable him to deal
with the complicated affairs of Northern Europe, where Charles the
tenth was pursuing his meteoric career, and to compel the
(20:00):
Emperor to respect the Peace of Westphalia and the terms
of the capitulation which he had agreed to on his accession.
On November seventh, sixteen fifty nine, the Peace of the
Pyrenees was signed and a fitting end was brought to
Mazarin's efforts. By this piece, France obtained Roussillon contflant Artois,
(20:25):
except Air and Saint Omer and portions of Luxembourg, Ano
and Flanders. France was confirmed in her possession of Alsace,
retained p Narolo, and though on certain terms, the Duke
of Lorraine was to be reinstated in his dominions, the
fortifications of Nancy were to be destroyed, and Louis the
(20:47):
fourteenth secured the Duchy of Barr, the County of Clermont,
steinnet dnt, Jemesse and moien Vique. An easy entry for
French armies in the future into Lorraine, Flanders, Aino and
Luxemburg was thus assured. Great difficulty was experienced with regard
(21:08):
to Conde. The Spanish minister had asked that the prince
should be restored to his former governments, but Mazarin firmly
refused to give any indulgence to a traitor and to
permit Conde to enjoy a position in which he could
again be a menace to the monarchy. Eventually, it was
(21:29):
settled that on condition number one that Spain seeded aven
and gave Juliet to the Duke of Neubourg, one of
the allies of France, and two that Conde asked pardon
of the King of France, he should receive his private
estate and be made governor of Burgundy and bress. To
(21:49):
these terms, Conde agreed and became one of Louis's most
submissive courtiers. Portugal was not included in the treaty, though
France obtained an amnesty for the Catalans and Neopolitans who
had sided with her. Though the Treaty of June fourth
had provided for the marriage of Louis the fourteenth with
(22:11):
the Enfanta, the terms of the arrangement were again fully discussed,
Don Luis Dejarro insisting that the princess should renounce her
rights to the Spanish succession. Eventually, Mazarin agreed to the
renunciation on condition that she received a dowry of five
hundred thousand crowns, payable in three years. The articles of
(22:36):
the marriage treaty were so drawn by Leon that if
the money were not paid within the allotted time, the
renunciation became nullen void. The affairs of England were also discussed,
and Charles the Second, who was present, endeavored to secure
the aid of France and Spain, in effecting his restoration.
(22:58):
Both Mazarin and Don Louis Pese were in favor of
the Stuart restoration, but Mazaron refused to take any part
in the war between England and Spain or to espouse
the cause of Charles. The Second Peace was now made
and France had established her superiority over Spain. The great
(23:19):
work of Mazaron was finished, and the policy of Henry
the Fourth and Richelieu was justified. Turin Fouquet and others, however,
were dissatisfied with the conclusion of peace, and were of
opinion that the continuance of the war would have been
advantageous to France. It was urged that Spain was so
(23:40):
weakened that the conquest of the whole of the Spanish
Netherlands could easily have been affected, and the Spanish monarchy dismembered. Mazaron, however,
was right in concluding peace. France was exhausted, her finances
in confusion, her people anxious for the end of hostile stilities. England,
(24:02):
distracted by internal troubles, was no longer an effective ally,
and had France persevered in her attempts to secure the
Spanish Netherlands, she would probably have brought upon herself the
active opposition of Holland and the Emperor. Mazarent too was
anxious to bring French influence to bear upon the combatants
(24:24):
in the Baltic and to end the Northern War. It
was also necessary to examine more closely into the condition
of the finances and into Fouquet's administration. One of the
articles in the Treaty of the Pyrenees had contemplated the
intervention of France or Spain as mediators in the Northern War.
(24:46):
Don Luis de Harro, however, showed no inclination to take
any part in the work of mediation, and it was
left to Mazarin to re establish peace in the Baltic.
France was indeed deeply interested in the work of pacification.
Several of the allies of Louis the fourteenth were engaged
in the war, and the Emperor had already taken part
(25:09):
and violated the Treaty of Westphalia. Servian strongly urged that
help should be given to Sweden, the ancient ally of
France and a valuable counterpoise to the power of the
Emperor in Germany. The Northern War had begun in sixteen
fifty five, by the invasion of Poland by Charles the
(25:30):
Tenth of Sweden. John Casimir, King of Poland, who had
married Marie de Gonzagnavere of French Princess, lost the greater
part of his kingdom and Warsaw fell. Disregarding Mazarin's councils
of prudence and moderation, Charles the Tenth attacked and made
(25:53):
an enemy of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. While the Poles,
take making advantage of this diversion, drove the Swedes out
of their territory. Charles at once threw himself on Poland,
and after the famous three days Battle of Warsaw July
twenty eighth, twenty ninth and thirtieth sixteen fifty six, again
(26:17):
conquered the country. Alarmed at the rapid success of Sweden,
a coalition including Russia, Poland, Brondenburg and Denmark was formed.
In sixteen fifty seven. Leopold of Austria, then King of Hungary,
also allied himself with Poland and sent troops, while Holland
was prepared to oppose the conversion of the Baltic into
(26:39):
a Swedish lake. Menaced by this formidable league, Charles attacked
Denmark and besieged Copenhagen. Unable to offer any adequate resistance,
the Danes willingly accepted the mediation of France and England,
and on February twenty eighth, sixteen fifty eight, made the
(27:00):
Treaty of Roskilt, by which Sweden secured several provinces. War
again broke out in the summer between Denmark and Sweden,
and in August Copenhagen was a second time besieged. The
projects of Charles the Tenth included the annexation of Denmark
and Norway to Sweden and the occupation of Kurland, Pilau
(27:24):
and Donsig. He would thus dominate the Baltic and rule
over a powerful northern empire. Holland at once took alarm,
defeated the Swedish fleet and raised the siege of Copenhagen,
while a new coalition was formed including Russia, Poland, Brandenburg,
(27:45):
Denmark and Holland. The Emperor Leopolt encouraged the allies and
sent them reinforcements. Such was the situation in the North
during the summer of sixteen fifty eight. Charles the Tenth
had ignored his allies and his rashness had tended to
alienate both France and England, but Oliver Cromwell was always
(28:09):
guided in his policy to Sweden by the conviction that
the Roman Catholic governments had entered into a conspiracy against
all Protestant states. He was also keenly alive to the
importance of safeguarding English trade. Consequently, Cromwell was easily convinced
by Mazarin of the necessity of preserving the balance of
(28:32):
power in the Baltic. Mazarin definitely proposed that France and
England should unite to bring about peace between Sweden and Denmark,
and between Sweden and the rest of the coalition. Cromwell
at once sent a fleet into the Baltic to oppose
Dutch attempts at aggrandizement. Unable to resist France and England,
(28:57):
Holland joined them in urging peace upon on Sweden and Denmark.
During sixteen fifty nine, Mazarin never ceased his pacific endeavors,
and almost simultaneously with the meeting of Mazarin and Don
Luis de Haro, a peace conference was opened at Oliva
(29:17):
under the presidency of Antoine de l'ombre. The French ambassador
in Poland. The proceedings were carried on slowly. The King
of Sweden was ungrateful for the help given him by
England and France, and obstinately refused to relinquish his schemes,
while the Emperor was secretly doing all in his power
(29:39):
to prolong the struggle and to drive the Swedes from
their possessions. In Germany, Imperial troops besieged Stetide, though in
doing so they acted contrary to the terms of the
Peace of Westphalia. No sooner was the Peace of the
Pyrenees signed than Mazarin interfered energetically on the hand half
(30:00):
of Sweden. Various circumstances enabled him to bring matters to
a successful issue. Spain refused to give any assistance to
the Emperor, and the members of the League of the
Rhine were stirred up by de Gravelle, the French envoy,
to protest against the Emperor's attack on the King of Sweden, who,
(30:21):
as Duke of Bremen and Verden, was a member of
the Confederation. Mazarin himself declared that if the Emperor's attacks
on Pomerania were continued, France would send her armies to
the assistance of Charles the Tenth. It is impossible to
assert that Mazarin's efforts to bring about peace could have
(30:42):
proved successful had not Charles the Tenth died in sixteen sixty. Obstinate, ambitious,
and full of wild schemes of conquest, Charles the Tenth
had nothing in common with Mazarin, whose advice he usually
treated with contempt. His death at this crisis facilitated the
(31:04):
conclusion of peace. The negotiations at Oliva were complicated by
the fact that the Queen of Poland was a French
princess who complained of the partiality shown by Mazarin for Sweden.
Both Sweden and Poland were the traditional allies of France,
and it was a difficult matter to arrange a satisfactory settlement.
(31:26):
Mazarin's skill proved, however, adequate for the task, and on
May third, sixteen sixty, the Treaty of Oliva was signed.
John Casimir renounced all claim to the Swedish throne. Livonia
was divided between Sweden and Poland, and the latter state
received back Courland, Polish Prussia and all towns in Pomerania,
(31:50):
lately occupied by the troops of the Elector of Brandenburg
and the Emperor. The peace secured the independence of Prussia
under the Great, whose power was thereby greatly strengthened. On
June sixth, sixteen sixty, the Treaty of Copenhagen between Sweden
and Denmark was concluded under the mediation of France, England
(32:14):
and Holland. Sweden gave up her recent conquests, but kept
the provinces of halland Blekinge and Scania. Mazarin's diplomacy had
again been successfully asserted, while Sweden the ally of France,
still preserved her superiority in the Baltic Denmark, Poland and
(32:37):
Brandenburg had accepted the mediation of the government of Louis
the fourteen. The pacification of the North did infinite credit
to the patience, perseverance and sagacity of the Cardinal. The
same year that saw the conclusion of the Peace of
Oliva witnessed the departure of a French expedition to aid
(33:00):
made Venice in her war against Turkey and to repress
piracy in the Barbary States. The French ambassador at Constantinople
had been insulted by the Turks in sixteen fifty eight
and without declaring war upon the port. Mazaron decided to
avenge the insult by aiding the Venetians in their defense
(33:21):
of Condia. The expedition proved a failure, and it was
not till a few years later that French troops accomplished
the end aimed at by Mazarin by aiding the imperialists
to defeat the Turks in the Battle of Saint Gotland.
Mazaron's last negotiations were successfully carried out and proved beneficial
(33:44):
to France by a treaty signed on December sixteenth, sixteen
sixty Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria, on condition of receiving
a large sum of money, renounced all pretensions to Alo
sass and the Sundgau of which Altkirch was the capital,
(34:05):
and it was at the same time settled that the
County of Firet should also be ceded to France. Mazarin
succeeded in carrying out the stipulations of a clause in
the Peace of Westphalia of the greatest interest and importance
to France. On February twenty eighth, sixteen sixty one, a
(34:26):
few days before his death, Mazarin concluded a treaty with
Charles four, the Duke of Lorraine. The terms settled in
the Peace of the Pyrenees were modified, and Charles the
fourth was re established in this duchy, though in close
dependence upon France. While engaged on these negotiations with the
(34:49):
Northern Powers, with Turkey, with the Archduke Ferdinand, Charles, and
with the Duke of Lorraine, Mazarin had also been occupied
in the south of France. There the court remained all
through the winter of sixteen fifty nine and sixty, and
during its sojourn at Toulouse, several interesting events occurred. Mazarin
(35:12):
secured for himself from the Duke of Mantua the Duchy
of Navere, and at the same time gave the Count
of Arcour the province of Anjou in place of the
government of Alsace, which he kept in his own hands.
He also endeavored to deal with the finances of the kingdom. Fouquet,
the Superintendent had been denounced by Colbert and by VARs,
(35:37):
who had examined the accounts. Since Servian's death in February
of sixteen fifty nine. Fouquet's schemes had been unchecked. He
spent immense sums upon the building of his chateau of
Vaulee Vicomte. He employed spies to report to him the
words of Mazarin and the king. He evidently wished to
(35:58):
become the first minute. The purchase and fortification of Belliel
seemed to presage a struggle between the magnificent Fouquet and
the royal power. Fouquet's influence was undoubtedly considerable. Procureur general
as well as superintendent of the finances, Fouquet had not
(36:22):
only amassed a large fortune, but had obtained for his
relations and friends high positions in the church, the army,
and the court. Liberal to extravagance. A patron of men
of letters and artists, Fouquet had numerous friends and positions
of trust. His power, wealth and influence made him a
(36:45):
dangerous man, and there is little doubt that he was
prepared of necessary to stir up civil war. He had
been useful during the years of stress, but he belonged
to an order of things that was passing away. He
had nothing in common with the views and position of
such men as LeTellier, Serbian and Colbert. The future was
(37:07):
with middle class officialdom, with bureaucracy, and with centralization, Fouquet
wished to be the mayor of the Palace. Masarn was
well aware of the advisability of ridding the government of Fouquet.
In a memoir drawn up in October of sixteen fifty nine,
(37:28):
Colbert had painted Fouquet's faulty methods in the blackest colors
and had suggested sweeping reforms. But the principal obstacle to
drastic financial reforms lay in the danger of shaking the
credit of the government. The fall of Fouquet would increase
the difficulty of obtaining money. This consideration may have decided
(37:52):
Mazarin not to attack Fouquet at any rate. He had
several interviews with the Superintendent and remained dow on good
terms with him till his own death. It was left
to Louis the fourteenth to carry out the suggestions of
Colbert and to overthrow Fouquet and his system. Monsieur Cheruel,
(38:13):
in his work on Mazarron's ministry, says that Nicola Fouquet
was with his brother the evil genius of Mazarin, and
blames the cardinal for not acting energetically upon Colbert's advice.
During the winter and spring of sixteen sixty, the court
remained in the south of France. The Fronte had been
(38:35):
strongly supported in some of the southern districts, and the
Duke of Mercur, who had succeeded the Count of a
Lais as governor of Provence, had been compelled to use
force in order to quell the sedition at Toulouse. Mazarin
hoped that the presence of the king would allay all
discontent and promote a feeling of loyalty. He was also
(38:57):
anxious to improve the condition of the navy in the Mediterranean,
and with that object visited in company with Louis the
fourteenth the important town of Toulon at x in Provence.
Louis had received the submission of CORONDEI, and on February third,
the ratification of the Treaty of the Pyrenees. Later in
(39:20):
the month, he and the cardinals stayed at Toulon, and
on March second he entered Marseilles. As in the case
of Toulouse, Mercuriur had been compelled to have recourse to
arms before he could secure the submission of the citizens.
An expedition was about the same time sent to compel
the governor of the town of Range, which belonged to
(39:43):
the House of Range Nassau, to recognize the SUZERAINTI of
the King of France and to open its gates to
his representative from Marseilles. The court proceeded to Auvignan, Montpellier,
and finally to Sainte Jean Delous, where in June the
marriage of Louis and the Infanta was celebrated for the
(40:07):
first time for many years. Anne of Austria and her
brother Philip the fourth of Spain met on the isle
of Pheasants, and two days later, on June sixth, the
two kings had an interview. Louis the fourteen with his
queen and court, then returned to Fontainebleau, arriving on July thirteen.
(40:29):
The state entry into Paris was not made till August
twenty six, and was the occasion of great rejoicings. In
the procession, Mazeron's suite was equal to the royal household
in magnificence. First came seventy two baggage mules, divided into
three troops, and each troop adorned with embroidered silk and tapestry.
(40:53):
The last troop clothed with coverings of scarlet velvet, on
which were blazoned the Cardinal's arms. Then followed twenty four
pages in rich liveries, and on horseback, led by Mazarin's equerries,
the Sieur Fontenelle and Moreaux. Next came twelve Spanish genets,
eccutered in crimson embroidered velvet, and each led by two grooms.
(41:18):
To these succeeded his carriages, seven in number, each drawn
by six horses. The Cardinal's private carriage was completely covered
with goldsmith's work in silver guilt, and was surrounded by
forty running footmen richly dressed, behind whom marched the sur
de besmo of Mazarin's bodyguard. Mazarin with Turin, viewed the
(41:43):
procession from a balcony, being too ill himself to take
part in it. English affairs were during these celebrations, engaging
his attention and demanded the exercise of all his diplomatic skill. Before, however,
the court had returned to Fontainebleau, the restoration had taken
(42:04):
place in England, and it seemed likely to be followed
by a breach of the Angle French alliance. For some months,
Mazaron had been occupied with the consideration of the political
situation in England, what was the true policy for France
to adopt. During the latter days of the weak rule
(42:24):
of Richard Cromwell. The Treaty of Paris made by Mazalon
with Oliver Cromwell had proved invaluable, but in accordance with
the demands of the Protector. Charles the Second had been
forced to retire from France, while his mother, Henrietta Maria
remained and had become a persona grata at the French court.
(42:46):
While she looked forward to returning to England and to
directing the policy of the restored monarchy, Charles the Second
hied and the rest of his exiled friends had bitter
feelings with regard to their treatment by the French government.
In the early months of sixteen sixty, during his journeys
through Langdok and Provence, Mazarin was compelled to watch very
(43:10):
carefully the various revolutionary phases through which England was passing
and to decide on the policy which France should adopt.
A monarchical restoration in England was the ardent wish of
both Louis the fourteenth and his court, but any overt
action in favor of Charles the Second, would rally all
(43:31):
the anti monarchical sections in England and ruin Charles the
Second's prospects. At the same time, Mazaron wished, in view
of the possibility of a restoration, to stand well with
Charles and in some measure to remove the feelings of
hostility which that prince felt toward France as the ally
of the Commonwealth. It was quite evident to Mazarin that
(43:55):
the continuance of anarchy and England would discuss all lovers
of order and contribute to a restoration. It was equally
evident that the interests of Charles the Second would be
best served by inaction on the part of France. Mazaron
recognized that Monk held the key of the position. While
(44:16):
that general was deciding on his future action, Mazaron sent
secretly to Charles the Second, who was then in Brussels,
one hundred thousand crowns and a promise of aid from
France toward his restoration. The gravity of this blunder was
at once apparent. Charles was doubtless shadowed by spies, but
(44:38):
Monsieur Cherul charges Hide and Ormond with having divulged Mazarin's intentions.
In any case, Charles the Second's cause was for the
time weakened, and general resentment prevailed in England at the
notion of receiving a king through the agency of France.
To destroy the evil effects of the publication of mass
(45:00):
Torand's somewhat indiscreet action, Monk and the supporters of a
restoration decided that Charles the Second should reside in a
country not dependent upon either France or Spain. Consequently, the
prince proceeded to Breda, and on May eighth, sixteen sixty,
was offered the English crown by the Parliament. For some
(45:24):
months after the restoration, France and England rifted apart, friction
being caused partly by the continued residence in England of Baucdeaux,
who had been accredited to the Commonwealth, partly owing to
the intrigues of Henrietta Maria, who worked with the aid
of France to overthrow Hyde, the English chancellor, her declared enemy.
(45:46):
It was not until Boucdeaux had been recalled the triumph
of Hyde assured, and the marriage of the English Princess
Henrietta with Louis the fourteenths brother carried out in March
sixteen sixty one that all danger of hostilities was averted
from May twenty ninth, sixteen sixty the date of the restoration,
(46:08):
to the end of the year. Mazarin, among his other anxieties,
had to face the possibility of a rupture with England.
Charles the Second opened the ball by refusing to receive Borucdeaux,
whom he accused of favoring the Commonwealth and of attempting
to influence Monk against a restoration. In July, Bucdeaux left England,
(46:30):
and Charles, realizing that a war at that moment might
shake his throne, made secret overtures to Louis the fourteenth
and Mazarin, the latter, anxious to leave France at Peice,
accepted Charles's excuses, and the Count of Soisson was sent
with great ceremony to congratulate Charles on his accession. A
(46:51):
proposal that Charles should marry Ortensia Mancini was swept aside
by the cardinal, who thus a second time declined to
allow one of his nieces to marry a king. On
the contrary, he encouraged the project of a marriage between
Charles and Catherine of Braganza. By one of the articles
(47:12):
of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, France had engaged not
to aid Portugal in her struggle for independence against Spain,
either directly or indirectly. It was very doubtful if Portugal, unaided,
could hold her own against the Spanish armies, and in
bringing about a marriage between Charles the Second and Catherine
(47:33):
of Braganza, the French government was securing for Portugal a
valuable ally. Since sixteen sixty the relations between England and
Portugal had been almost uniformly friendly. It was not, however,
till sixteen sixty two, that the marriage took place. In
February sixteen sixty one, shortly before Mazarin's death, Henrietta, Charles
(47:59):
the UAE the second's sister, arrived in France for her
marriage with Philip, Duke of Anjou and later Duke of
or Leons. This marriage, which was celebrated on March thirty first,
had Mazarin's full approbation. It removed all causes of irritation
between England and France and led to a close alliance
(48:22):
between the two countries. Till William the Third's accession. France
gained enormously By this alliance. England never interfered seriously or
for any prolonged period, with the schemes of Louis the
fourteenth Dunkirk was recovered, and the wisdom which guided all
(48:44):
Mazarin's relations with England was again fully exemplified. End of
Chapter eight
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